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Chen J, Sun Y, Liu Q, Yip J, Yick KL. Construction of multi-component finite element model to predict biomechanical behaviour of breasts during running and quantification of the stiffness impact of internal structure. Biomech Model Mechanobiol 2024:10.1007/s10237-024-01862-2. [PMID: 38806750 DOI: 10.1007/s10237-024-01862-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/30/2024]
Abstract
This study aims to investigate the biomechanical behaviour and the stiffness impact of the breast internal components during running. To achieve this, a novel nonlinear multi-component dynamic finite element method (FEM) has been established, which uses experimental data obtained via 4D scanning technology and a motion capture system. The data are used to construct a geometric model that comprises the rigid body, layers of soft tissues, skin, pectoralis major muscle, fat, ligaments and glandular tissues. The traditional point-to-point method has a relative mean absolute error of less than 7.92% while the latest surface-to-surface method has an average Euclidean distance (d) of 7.05 mm, validating the simulated results. After simulating the motion of the different components of the breasts, the displacement analysis confirms that when the motion reaches the moment of largest displacement, the displacement of the breast components is proportional to their distance from the chest wall. A biomechanical analysis indicates that the stress sustained by the breast components in ascending order is the glandular tissues, pectoralis major muscle, adipose tissues, and ligaments. The ligaments provide the primary support during motion, followed by the pectoralis major muscle. In addition, specific stress points of the breast components are identified. The stiffness impact experiment indicates that compared with ligaments, the change of glandular tissue stiffness had a slightly more obvious effect on the breast surface. The findings serve as a valuable reference for the medical field and sports bra industry to enhance breast protection during motion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiazhen Chen
- School of Fashion and Textiles, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Yue Sun
- School of Fashion Design and Engineering, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, 310018, China
| | - Qilong Liu
- School of Fashion and Textiles, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Joanne Yip
- School of Fashion and Textiles, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Kit-Lun Yick
- School of Fashion and Textiles, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong.
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Haworth L, May K, Janssen J, Selfe J, Chohan A. Does an alternative breast support garment provide symptomatic relief for larger breasted women with chronic non-specific back pain? Prosthet Orthot Int 2024; 48:213-222. [PMID: 38595180 PMCID: PMC11005674 DOI: 10.1097/pxr.0000000000000277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2022] [Revised: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 04/11/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Nonsurgical guidelines recommend implementing a correctly fitted bra when managing back pain among larger breasted women. Achieving this is challenging with current bra solutions, sizing principles, and fitting approaches. Persistent wearing of an ill-fitting bra can cause negative health implications, including non-specific back pain. OBJECTIVES This study investigated immediate and short-term biomechanical and pain responses to changing breast support garment among larger breasted women with non-specific back pain. METHODS Participants (n = 24) performed a standing task, drop jumps, and seated typing tasks while bra and spinal kinematic data were recorded. Five breast support conditions were assessed: participants' usual bra (control), a professionally fitted bra in the immediate term (standard) and after 4 weeks wear (standard28), and a bra with an alternative design, measurement, and fitting approach in both the immediate term (alternative) and after 4 weeks wear (alternative28). A bra fit assessment and clinical pain/disability questionnaires were included. RESULTS All participants failed the bra fit assessment in the control bra, compared with 87.5% (n = 21) in the standard and 4.2% (n = 1) in the alternative bras. The standard28 and alternative28 bras provided symptomatic relief, with the alternative28 bra improving a greater number of outcome measures. Reduced nipple-sternal-notch distance was observed only in the alternative28 bra condition. CONCLUSIONS Symptomatic relief may be associated with the resting position of the breast tissue on the anterior chest wall. The alternative bra may provide potential clinical benefit if implemented as part of a nonsurgical or conservative pain management strategy. Alternative breast support garments should be considered to provide solutions to the problems associated with traditional bras.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Haworth
- Allied Health Research Unit, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, United Kingdom
| | - Karen May
- School of Medicine, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, United Kingdom
| | - Jessie Janssen
- Institute of Therapeutic and Midwifery Sciences, IMC University of Applied Science Krems, Krems an der Donau, Austria
| | - James Selfe
- Health, Psychology and Communities, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Ambreen Chohan
- Allied Health Research Unit, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, United Kingdom
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Friedland F, Babu S, Springer R, Konrad J, Herfs Y, Gerlach S, Gehlen J, Krause HJ, De Laporte L, Merkel R, Noetzel E. ECM-transmitted shear stress induces apoptotic cell extrusion in early breast gland development. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:947430. [PMID: 36105352 PMCID: PMC9465044 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.947430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2022] [Accepted: 07/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Epithelial cells of human breast glands are exposed to various mechanical ECM stresses that regulate tissue development and homeostasis. Mechanoadaptation of breast gland tissue to ECM-transmitted shear stress remained poorly investigated due to the lack of valid experimental approaches. Therefore, we created a magnetic shear strain device that enabled, for the first time, to analyze the instant shear strain response of human breast gland cells. MCF10A-derived breast acini with basement membranes (BM) of defined maturation state and basoapical polarization were used to resemble breast gland morphogenesis in vitro. The novel biophysical tool was used to apply cyclic shear strain with defined amplitudes (≤15%, 0.2 Hz) over 22 h on living spheroids embedded in an ultrasoft matrix (<60 Pa). We demonstrated that breast spheroids gain resistance to shear strain, which increased with BM maturation and basoapical polarization. Most intriguingly, poorly developed spheroids were prone to cyclic strain-induced extrusion of apoptotic cells from the spheroid body. In contrast, matured spheroids were insensitive to this mechanoresponse—indicating changing mechanosensing or mechanotransduction mechanisms during breast tissue morphogenesis. Together, we introduced a versatile tool to study cyclic shear stress responses of 3D cell culture models. It can be used to strain, in principle, all kinds of cell clusters, even those that grow only in ultrasoft hydrogels. We believe that this approach opens new doors to gain new insights into dynamic shear strain-induced mechanobiological regulation circuits between cells and their ECM.
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Affiliation(s)
- F. Friedland
- Institute of Biological Information Processing 2 (IBI-2): Mechanobiology, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich, Germany
| | - S. Babu
- DWI-Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, Aachen, Germany
- Institute of Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry (ITMC), Polymeric Biomaterials, RWTH University Aachen, Aachen, Germany
| | - R. Springer
- Institute of Biological Information Processing 2 (IBI-2): Mechanobiology, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich, Germany
| | - J. Konrad
- Institute of Biological Information Processing 2 (IBI-2): Mechanobiology, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich, Germany
| | - Y. Herfs
- Institute of Biological Information Processing 2 (IBI-2): Mechanobiology, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich, Germany
| | - S. Gerlach
- Institute of Biological Information Processing 2 (IBI-2): Mechanobiology, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich, Germany
| | - J. Gehlen
- Institute of Biological Information Processing 2 (IBI-2): Mechanobiology, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich, Germany
| | - H.-J. Krause
- Institute of Biological Information Processing 3 (IBI-3): Bioelectronics, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich, Germany
| | - L. De Laporte
- DWI-Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, Aachen, Germany
- Institute of Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry (ITMC), Polymeric Biomaterials, RWTH University Aachen, Aachen, Germany
- Advanced Materials for Biomedicine (AMB), Institute of Applied Medical Engineering (AME), University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Center for Biohybrid Medical Systems (CMBS), Aachen, Germany
| | - R. Merkel
- Institute of Biological Information Processing 2 (IBI-2): Mechanobiology, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich, Germany
| | - E. Noetzel
- Institute of Biological Information Processing 2 (IBI-2): Mechanobiology, Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich, Germany
- *Correspondence: E. Noetzel,
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Cameron L, Burbage J, Lewis V, Dumbell L, Billingsley E, Young K, King-Urbin C, Goater F. Breast biomechanics, exercise induced breast pain (mastalgia), breast support condition and its impact on riding position in female equestrians. COMPARATIVE EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.3920/cep210005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Breast biomechanics, exercise-induced breast pain (EIBP) and performance effects in female athletes are established. Wearing sports bras during exercise reduces breast movement and EIBP. Despite the prevalence of female equestrians, little investigation of breast movement during horse riding exists, yet excessive breast movement, embarrassment and EIBP are reported. Breast movement relative to the torso is linked to EIBP, associated with magnitude and direction of forces generated. Equestrians may experience novel breast and upper-body movement patterns in response to large vertical excursions of the horse. This study aimed to establish relative vertical breast displacement (RVBD), EIBP and positional changes in three support conditions: ‘no support’, ‘low support’ and ‘high support’. Thirty-eight female equestrians rode a Racewood™ Equine Simulator in each breast support condition in medium walk, medium trot (sitting) and medium canter. Trials were filmed and analysed using Quintic® Biomechanics V29. Significant reductions in RVBD (P<0.001) and EIBP (P<0.001) were identified with increased breast support in all gaits. In medium trot (sitting) a significant reduction in range of movement (ROM) of shoulder-elbow-wrist (P<0.001) was seen from low to high support. ROM of torso-vertical angles were reduced from no support to low support (P<0.001) and further by high support (P<0.001). This reduction in ROM was significantly greater in large breasted riders (cup size DD-FF) (n=21) (P<0.001) compared to small breasted (cup size AA-D) (n=17). These results suggest that appropriate breast support positively impacts EIBP and riding position in female riders possibly enhancing performance. As RVBD and reported EIBP were not wholly comparative with results in female runners, further research is warranted to establish breast movement in equestrianism in three dimensions.
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Affiliation(s)
- L.J. Cameron
- University Centre Sparsholt, Winchester, Hampshire, SO21 2NF, United Kingdom
- Hartpury University, Gloucester, GL19 3BE, United Kingdom
| | - J. Burbage
- School of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Portsmouth, Spinnaker Building, PO1 2ER, United Kingdom
| | - V. Lewis
- Hartpury University, Gloucester, GL19 3BE, United Kingdom
| | - L. Dumbell
- Hartpury University, Gloucester, GL19 3BE, United Kingdom
| | - E. Billingsley
- University Centre Sparsholt, Winchester, Hampshire, SO21 2NF, United Kingdom
| | - K. Young
- University Centre Sparsholt, Winchester, Hampshire, SO21 2NF, United Kingdom
| | | | - F. Goater
- University Centre Sparsholt, Winchester, Hampshire, SO21 2NF, United Kingdom
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Abstract
Although half the world's population will develop breasts, there is limited research documenting breast structure or motion. Understanding breast structure and motion, however, is imperative for numerous applications, such as breast reconstruction, breast modeling to better diagnose and treat breast pathologies, and designing effective sports bras. To be impactful, future breast biomechanics research needs to fill gaps in our knowledge, particularly related to breast composition and density, and to improve methods to accurately measure the complexities of three-dimensional breast motion. These methods should then be used to investigate breast biomechanics while individuals, who represent the full spectrum of women in the population, participate in a broad range of activities of daily living and recreation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deirdre E McGhee
- Biomechanics Research Laboratory, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
| | - Julie R Steele
- Biomechanics Research Laboratory, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
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Norris M, Mills C, Sanchez A, Wakefield-Scurr J. Do static and dynamic activities induce potentially damaging breast skin strain? BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med 2020; 6:e000770. [PMID: 32699646 PMCID: PMC7365429 DOI: 10.1136/bmjsem-2020-000770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background/Aim This study aimed to quantify breast skin strain and strain rate and the effect of support garments at reducing strain and to determine characteristics that correlate with strain during static and dynamic activity. Methods 39 women (UK size 32C to 36G) had electromagnetic sensors applied to their breast skin. Sensor coordinates were recorded while standing, walking, running, in no, low and high breast support conditions, plus bare-breasted in the estimated neutral position to calculate strain. Relative breast coordinates and 35 inter-sensor distances identified peak breast skin strain (%) and strain rate (%·s-1), which were then correlated with nipple kinematics, breast pain and participant characteristics. Results Mean peak breast skin strain was generally <60% during standing, walking and running; however, some individuals exhibited 93% strain in bare-breasted running. Compared with low support, high support did not further reduce strain during standing and walking. Peak breast skin strain/strain rate location was longitudinal, in lateral and medial breast regions and displayed strong correlations with breast volume, body mass index and bust circumference. Conclusion Static and dynamic activity did not result in excessive breast skin strain, suggesting low risk of skin damage. However, during running, some individuals experienced excessive skin strains (up to 93%) and strain rates (up to 1258%·s-1). Breast skin strain/strain rate location suggests lift is required in the lateral and medial bra cup to reduce strain, particularly in larger breast volumes due to increased skin strain risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Norris
- Lero, the Irish Software Research Centre, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland.,Health Research Institute (HRI), University of Limerick, Ageing Research Centre (ARC), Limerick, Ireland.,School of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
| | - Chris Mills
- School of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
| | - Amy Sanchez
- School of Sport, Health and Exercise Science, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
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Sanchez A, Mills C, Haake S, Norris M, Scurr J. Quantification of gravity-induced skin strain across the breast surface. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon) 2017; 50:47-55. [PMID: 28987871 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2017.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2016] [Revised: 09/07/2017] [Accepted: 10/02/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Quantification of the magnitude of skin strain in different regions of the breast may help to estimate possible gravity-induced damage whilst also being able to inform the selection of incision locations during breast surgery. The aim of this study was to quantify static skin strain over the breast surface and to estimate the risk of skin damage caused by gravitational loading. METHODS Fourteen participants had 21 markers applied to their torso and left breast. The non-gravity breast position was estimated as the mid-point of the breast positions in water and soybean oil (higher and lower density than breast respectively). The static gravity-loaded breast position was also measured. Skin strain was calculated as the percentage extension between adjacent breast markers in the gravity and non-gravity loaded conditions. FINDINGS Gravity induced breast deformation caused peak strains ranging from 14 to 75% across participants, with potentially damaging skin strain (>60%) in one participant and skin strains above 30% (skin resistance zone) in a further four participants. These peak strain values all occurred in the longitudinal direction in the upper region of the breast skin. In the latitudinal direction, smaller-breasted participants experienced greater strain on the outer (lateral) breast regions and less strain on the inner (medial) breast regions, a trend which was reversed in the larger breasted participants (above size 34D). INTERPRETATION To reduce tension on surgical incisions it is suggested that preference should be given to medial latitudinal locations for smaller breasted women and lateral latitudinal locations for larger breasted women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy Sanchez
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, Spinnaker Building, University of Portsmouth, PO1 2ER, UK
| | - Chris Mills
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, Spinnaker Building, University of Portsmouth, PO1 2ER, UK.
| | - Steve Haake
- Centre for Sports Engineering Research, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield S10 2BP, UK
| | - Michelle Norris
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, Spinnaker Building, University of Portsmouth, PO1 2ER, UK
| | - Joanna Scurr
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, Spinnaker Building, University of Portsmouth, PO1 2ER, UK
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Mills C, Sanchez A, Scurr J. Estimating the gravity induced three dimensional deformation of the breast. J Biomech 2016; 49:4134-4137. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2016.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2016] [Revised: 10/06/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Mills C, Loveridge A, Milligan A, Risius D, Scurr J. Is torso soft tissue motion really an artefact within breast biomechanics research? J Biomech 2014; 47:2606-10. [PMID: 24953261 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2014.05.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2013] [Revised: 05/09/2014] [Accepted: 05/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
For rigid body POSE estimation, any relative movement of the tracking markers on a segment is often referred to as an artefact; however this may be an important part of the signal within breast biomechanics. This study aimed to quantify differences in breast range of motion when calculated relative to the torso segment using either direct or segment optimised POSE estimation algorithms. Markers on the torso and right nipple were tracked using infrared cameras (200 Hz) during five running gait cycles in three breast support conditions (no bra, everyday bra and sports bra). Multiplanar breast range of motion was calculated relative to the torso segment using two POSE estimation algorithms. First, the torso segment was defined using direct POSE estimation (direct). Second, while standing stationary in the anatomical position; the positional data of the torso markers were used to construct the torso using segment optimised POSE estimation (optimised). The torso segment length defined using direct POSE estimation changed significantly by 3.4 cm compared to that of the segment optimisation POSE estimation in the no bra condition. Subsequently, superioinferior breast range of motion was significantly greater (p<0.017) when calculated using direct POSE estimation, within each of the three breast support conditions. Segment optimisation POSE estimation is recommended to minimise any differences in breast motion associated with intra segment deformation between physical activity types. However, either algorithm is recommended when evaluating different breast support garments, as a correctly fitted bra does not cause the torso markers to move relative to each other.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris Mills
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Spinnaker Building, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, PO1 2ER, United Kingdom.
| | - Amy Loveridge
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Spinnaker Building, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, PO1 2ER, United Kingdom
| | - Alexandra Milligan
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Spinnaker Building, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, PO1 2ER, United Kingdom
| | - Debbie Risius
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Spinnaker Building, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, PO1 2ER, United Kingdom
| | - Joanna Scurr
- Department of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Spinnaker Building, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, PO1 2ER, United Kingdom
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Brown N, White J, Brasher A, Scurr J. An investigation into breast support and sports bra use in female runners of the 2012 London Marathon. J Sports Sci 2014; 32:801-9. [DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2013.844348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Brown N, White J, Brasher A, Scurr J. The experience of breast pain (mastalgia) in female runners of the 2012 London Marathon and its effect on exercise behaviour. Br J Sports Med 2013; 48:320-5. [DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2013-092175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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