Solvent based optimization for extraction and stability of thymoquinone from Nigella sativa Linn. and its quantification using RP-HPLC

Development and Validation of a Robust RP-HPLC Method for the Simultaneous Analysis of Exemestane and Thymoquinone and Its Application to Lipid-Based Nanoformulations

The present study describes the development and validation of a simple and rapid HPLC method for the simultaneous quantification of exemestane and thymoquinone. The separation of both compounds was performed on a 5 μ C-18 column utilizing phase A as water/methanol (45:5 v/v) and phase B as acetonitrile (50 v/v) (total ratio of A/B = 40:60 v/v) in isocratic elution mode as the mobile phase at a flow rate of 0.8 mL/min. Further, the Box-Behnken design was used for optimizing the analytical method. The proposed method was validated for various parameters, and all parameters were found to be within an acceptable range. The simultaneous detection of both drugs was monitored at 243 nm with a retention time of 5.73 and 6.93 min, respectively. Moreover, the forced degradation studies were conducted under various stress conditions, and the relevance of the validated RP-HPLC method was further explored for the estimation of drugs from lipid-based nanoformulation. Taken together, the study construed the development of an efficient and robust method that could be used for the quantification of these agents in various in vitro as well as in vivo models.

Effect of cyclodextrin-complexed lyophilized nanosuspension of Nigella sativa seeds oleoresin on chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS)-induced depression in mice

Depression is a prevalent global health concern necessitating alternative approaches to conventional antidepressant medications due to its associated adverse effects. Nigella sativa (NS) is recognized for its potential as an antidepressant, offering a promising solution with fewer side effects. This study investigated the antidepressant efficacy of cyclodextrin-complexed lyophilized nanosuspension of NS oleoresin (NSOR) in a murine model of chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS)-induced depression. This study sought to evaluate and contrast the antidepressant potential of the nano-NSOR with that of the NS ethanolic extract (NSEE). The prepared nano-NSOR was characterized physicochemically and evaluated for in vitro drug release and in vivo antidepressant activity. The particle size of nano-NSOR was determined to be 164.6 nm. In vitro drug release studies suggested the higher drug release from nano-NSOR (90.15 % after 72 h) compared to the native NSOR (59.55 % after 72 h). Furthermore, nano-NSOR exhibited a more pronounced antidepressant effect than NSEE in the context of CUMS-induced depression. This study highlights a potential alternative for managing depression, addressing the need for improved antidepressant treatments with reduced side effects. These results suggest that nano-NSOR ameliorates CUMS-induced depression by modulating neurotransmitter levels, reducing inflammation, and enhancing neuroprotection.

Endothelial Function Responses to Nigella sativa (Black Seed) Supplementation: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

Nigella sativa (NS), commonly known as black cumin or black seed, is a medicinal plant with a rich history of traditional use in various cultures. Recent research has shed light on its potential therapeutic properties, particularly its effects on endothelial markers involved in inflammatory processes. This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated the endothelial function responses, including intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM) and vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM), to NS supplementation. We systematically searched Medline via PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Embase databases from inception until August 5, 2023. Comparative randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were included. Pairwise meta-analysis was conducted using RevMan version 5.4 for Windows. Pooled data were reported as mean difference (MD), with their 95% confidence interval (CI). The present meta-analysis included three RCTs, which included 146 patients. The pooled random-effect size showed no difference between the NS group and the control group in terms of ICAM (MD = -59.32, 95% CI: -137.18 to 18.54; p = 0.14) and VCAM (MD = -200.1, 95% CI: -429.9 to 29.69; p = 0.09). The pooled data were severely heterogeneous. In conclusion, NS supplementation does not have a significant impact on the endothelial function of patients with CVD or the risks of CVD. Further comparative RCTs with larger sample sizes and more diverse populations are needed to establish the efficacy and safety of NS in different clinical settings.

Phytochemical investigation of Nigella sativa seed extract by HPTLC, HPLC and GC-MS: a comparative geographical study

This study aimed to ensure the quality of the seed as well as determine the phytochemical composition of Nigella sativa seed extract (NSSE) obtained from three different geographical locations. Pharmacognostic evaluation of the seed includes preliminary phytochemical screening, physicochemical evaluation, and study of heavy metal content, in addition to HPTLC, HPLC, and GC-MS studies of the extract obtained from the seed of the Nigella sativa (NS). HPTLC fingerprinting studies revealed the presence of various bioactive compounds. HPLC analysis confirms the quantitative variation of thymoquinone (TQ) in the extracts, i.e. the maximum quantity of TQ was found in Vizag NSSE, followed by Punjab and Madhya Pradesh. GC-MS analysis reveals the presence of 33, 35, and 32 constituents in the extract obtained from Vizag, Madhya Pradesh, and Punjab, respectively. This study confirms the variation in the phytochemical composition as well as in the biomarker (Thymoquinone) content present in the collected samples.

Thymoquinone: A Promising Therapeutic Agent for the Treatment of Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most commonly diagnosed cancers and is responsible for approximately one million deaths each year. The current standard of care is surgical resection of the lesion and chemotherapy with 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). However, of concern is the increasing incidence in an increasingly younger patient population and the ability of CRC cells to develop resistance to 5-FU. In this review, we discuss the effects of thymoquinone (TQ), one of the main bioactive components of Nigella sativa seeds, on CRC, with a particular focus on the use of TQ in combination therapy with other chemotherapeutic agents. TQ exhibits anti-CRC activity by inducing a proapoptotic effect and inhibiting proliferation, primarily through its effect on the regulation of signaling pathways crucial for tumor progression and oxidative stress. TQ can be used synergistically with chemotherapeutic agents to enhance their anticancer effects and to influence the expression of signaling pathways and other genes important in cancer development. These data appear to be most relevant for co-treatment with 5-FU. We believe that TQ is a suitable candidate for consideration in the chemoprevention and adjuvant therapy for CRC, but further studies, including clinical trials, are needed to confirm its safety and efficacy in the treatment of cancer.

Mechanism of the antidiabetic action of Nigella sativa and Thymoquinone: a review

Introduction

Long used in traditional medicine, Nigella sativa (NS; Ranunculaceae) has shown significant efficacy as an adjuvant therapy for diabetes mellitus (DM) management by improving glucose tolerance, decreasing hepatic gluconeogenesis, normalizing blood sugar and lipid imbalance, and stimulating insulin secretion from pancreatic cells. In this review, the pharmacological and pharmacokinetic properties of NS as a herbal diabetes medication are examined in depth, demonstrating how it counteracts oxidative stress and the onset and progression of DM.

Methods

This literature review drew on databases such as Google Scholar and PubMed and various gray literature sources using search terms like the etiology of diabetes, conventional versus herbal therapy, subclinical pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, physiology, behavior, and clinical outcomes.

Results

The efficiency and safety of NS in diabetes, notably its thymoquinone (TQ) rich volatile oil, have drawn great attention from researchers in recent years; the specific therapeutic dose has eluded determination so far. TQ has anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory properties but has not proved druggable. DM's intimate link with oxidative stress, makes NS therapy relevant since it is a potent antioxidant that energizes the cell's endogenous arsenal of antioxidant enzymes. NS attenuates insulin resistance, enhances insulin signaling, suppresses cyclooxygenase-2, upregulates insulin-like growth factor-1, and prevents endothelial dysfunction in DM.

Conclusion

The interaction of NS with mainstream drugs, gut microbiota, and probiotics opens new possibilities for innovative therapies. Despite its strong potential to treat DM, NS and TQ must be examined in more inclusive clinical studies targeting underrepresented patient populations.

Targeting cancer stem cells and signalling pathways through phytochemicals: A promising approach against colorectal cancer

BACKGROUND

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are strongly associated with high tumourigenicity, chemotherapy or radiotherapy resistance, and metastasis and recurrence, particularly in colorectal cancer (CRC). Therefore, targeting CSCs may be a promising approach. Recently, discovery and research on phytochemicals that effectively target colorectal CSCs have been gaining popularity because of their broad safety profile and multi-target and multi-pathway modes of action.

PURPOSE

This review aimed to elucidate and summarise the effects and mechanisms of phytochemicals with potential anti-CSC agents that could contribute to the better management of CRC.

METHODS

We reviewed PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science, Ovid, ScienceDirect and China National Knowledge Infrastructure databases from the original publication date to March 2022 to review the mechanisms by which phytochemicals inhibit CRC progression by targeting CSCs and their key signalling pathways. Phytochemicals were classified and summarised based on the mechanisms of action.

RESULTS

We observed that phytochemicals could affect the biological properties of colorectal CSCs. Phytochemicals significantly inhibit self-renewal, migration, invasion, colony formation, and chemoresistance and induce apoptosis and differentiation of CSCs by regulating the Wnt/β-catenin pathway (e.g., diallyl trisulfide and genistein), the phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase/protein kinase B/mammalian target of rapamycin pathway (e.g., caffeic acid and piperlongumine), the neurogenic locus notch homolog protein pathway (e.g., honokiol, quercetin, and α-mangostin), the Janus kinase-signal transducer and activator of transcription pathway (e.g., curcumin, morin, and ursolic acid), and other key signalling pathways. It is worth noting that several phytochemicals, such as resveratrol, silibinin, evodiamine, and thymoquinone, highlight multi-target and multi-pathway effects in restraining the malignant biological behaviour of CSCs.

CONCLUSIONS

This review demonstrates the potential of targeted therapies for colorectal CSCs using phytochemicals. Phytochemicals could serve as novel therapeutic agents for CRC and aid in drug development.

The effects of thymoquinone on pancreatic cancer: Evidence from preclinical studies

Thymoquinone (TQ) is a secondary metabolite found in abundance in very few plant species including Nigella sativa L., Monarda fistulosa L., Thymus vulgaris L. and Satureja montana L. Preclinical pharmacological studies have shown that TQ has many biological activities, such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and anticancer. Both in vivo and in vitro experiments have shown that TQ acts as an antitumor agent by altering cell cycle progression, inhibiting cell proliferation, stimulating apoptosis, inhibiting angiogenesis, reducing metastasis and affecting autophagy. In this comprehensive study, the evidence on the pharmacological potential of TQ on pancreatic cancer is reviewed. The positive results of preclinical studies support the view that TQ can be considered as an additional therapeutic agent against pancreatic cancer. The possibilities of success for this compound in human medicine should be further explored through clinical trials.

Screening of Thymoquinone Content in Commercial Nigella sativa Products to Identify a Promising and Safe Study Medication

(1) Background: Thymoquinone (TQ) is the leading compound accounting for the pharmacological effects of Nigella sativa seed oil, also known as black seed oil. This study aimed to analyze the TQ content of commercial black seed oils and black seed oil-containing capsules to obtain information on the quality of the products and to find a promising and safe study medication for a putative clinical study. (2) Methods: Six black seed oils and five black seed oil-containing capsules were analyzed. TQ was quantified using a validated method consisting of a simple methanolic extraction and a fast HPLC-UV analysis. (3) Results: The TQ content varied from 3.08 to 809.4 mg/100 g (mean). The highest TQ content was found in a bottled oil, which might be considered for a clinical study. A dose of 4 mL of this oil per day contains 30 mg TQ, which is unlikely to be harmful. Based on the literature, a safe daily TQ dosage appears to be <48.6 mg per adult. (4) Conclusions: These findings suggest that black seed products should be regulated regarding TQ content to enable consumers to buy black seed food supplements of known content for the maintenance and improvement of health.

Extraction optimization for the antioxidants from Nigella sativa seeds using response surface methodology

Although many studies have explored the bioactive compound content of Nigella sativa (black seed – BS) essential oil, data on the phenolic compound content in the extracts of Nigella sativa seeds gives inconclusive results [1–3]. In this study, response surface methodology (RSM) with a central composite plan (CCP) was used for the experimental design and identification of the optimal conditions for maximizing the phenolic content and the antioxidant activity of BS extract. The independent variables were as followed: temperature (22.9–67.1ºC), time (31.7–208.2 min), and methanol concentration in water (5.9–94.1% v/v). Different response variables (total polyphenols – TPC, total flavonoids – TFC and the antioxidant activity – DPPH and TEAC) required different optimal conditions to maximize them. The multi-response optimization was performed to determine the extraction conditions, which would simultaneously ensure the highest phenolic content and the antioxidant activity. The optimal conditions derived from the multi-response desirability function were as followed: 120 min, 56 °C and 50% methanol, giving the TPC = 7.05 mg/g, TFC = 3.05 mg/g, DPPH = 9.04 µmol/g and TEAC = 33.24 µmol/g (with desirability function coefficient = 0.83). Solvent concentration was established as a crucial parameter for the extraction of antioxidants from BS. A quercetin derivative and two derivatives of kaempferol were determined by HPLC (high performance liquid chromatography) analysis of the BS extract at the optimal conditions. The accuracy of the models for all response variables was confirmed by a high correlation coefficient (r = 0.99) between the experimental values and those predicted under optimal conditions.

Box-Behnken Design (BBD) Application for Optimization of Chromatographic Conditions in RP-HPLC Method Development for the Estimation of Thymoquinone in Nigella sativa Seed Powder

Thymoquinone (THY) is a bioactive compound present in the seed powder of Nigella sativa (NS). This research aims to precisely and accurately estimate THY using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with a Quality by Design (QbD) application. Box-Behnken design (BBD) was employed to optimize the chromatographic conditions for HPLC method development, taking mobile phase flow rate, pH of the buffer, and λmax as independent variables and retention time and tailing factor as the measured responses. The mobile phase composition was methanol: acetonitrile: buffer (2.2 mM ammonium formate) at the ratio of 35:50:15 v/v/v on a Symmetry® C18 (5 μm, 3.9 × 150 mm) column. In isocratic mode, it had a flow rate 0.9 mL min−1 and eluted analyte was detected at 249 nm. Validation parameters followed the International Council for Harmonization (ICH) guidelines for the new HPLC method. The method was linear over the range 6.25–100 µg mL−1 with a coefficient of determination (r2) of 0.9957. The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) were 2.05 and 6.25 µg mL−1, respectively. The %RSD of system suitability for retention time was 1.42% and for the tailing factor it was 0.695%. In addition, the developed method was precise, accurate, and robust according to ICH criteria. The developed HPLC method is simple, accurate, quick, and robust, and it could be used for the routine analysis of THY in different kinds of formulations.

Nanotechnology Approach for Exploring the Enhanced Bioactivities and Biochemical Characterization of Freshly Prepared Nigella sativa L. Nanosuspensions and Their Phytochemical Profile

Nigella sativa is one of the most commonly used medicinal plants as it exhibits several pharmacological activities such as antioxidant, antibacterial, anticancer, antidiabetic, and hemolytic. The purpose of this study was to apply the nanotechnology approach for exploring the enhanced bioactivities of freshly prepared Nigella sativa L. nanosuspensions and the phytochemical profile of N. sativa seed ethanolic extract. In this study, we performed the biochemical characterization of Nigella sativa L. ethanolic extract through High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and Gas chromatography (GC), and bioactivities in terms of antioxidant, antidiabetic, antibacterial, and hemolytic activities of nanosuspension and extract were competitively studied. The results revealed that the nanosuspension of N. sativa seeds showed higher total phenolic (478.63 ± 5.00 mg GAE/100 g) and total flavonoid contents (192.23 ± 1.390 mg CE/100 g) than the ethanolic seed extract. The antioxidant activity was performed using the DPPH scavenging assay, and nanosuspension showed higher potential (16.74 ± 1.88%) than the extract. The antidiabetic activity was performed using antiglycation and α-amylase inhibition assays, nanosuspension showed higher antidiabetic potential [antiglycation (58 ± 0.912%)] and [bacterial α-amylase inhibition (18.0 ± 1.3675%)], respectively. Nanosuspension showed higher biofilm inhibition activity against Escherichia coli (66.44 ± 3.529%) than the extract (44.96 ± 2.238%) and ciprofloxacin (59.39 ± 3.013%). Hemolytic activity was performed and nanosuspension showed higher hemolytic activity than the extract as 7.8 ± 0.1% and 6.5 ± 0.3%, respectively. The study showed that nanosuspension had enhanced the bioavailability of bioactive plant compounds as compared to the ethanolic extract. Therefore, nanosuspension of N. sativa seed extract showed higher biochemical activities as compared to the ethanolic extract. This nanotechnology approach can be used as a platform for the development of combination protocols for the characterization of liquid state nanosuspensions in an adequate manner and also for therapeutic applications.

The effect of Nigella sativa oil on vascular dysfunction assessed by flow-mediated dilation and vascular-related biomarkers in subject with cardiovascular disease risk factors: A randomized controlled trial

Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the leading causes of mortality worldwide. Flow-mediated dilation (FMD) is a marker of vascular function. Beneficial cardiometabolic effects of Nigella sativa (N. sativa) have been observed. We evaluated the effect of N. sativa oil on FMD, plasma nitrite, and nitrate (NOx) as nitric oxide (NO) metabolites, and inflammatory markers in subjects with CVD risk factors. Fifty participants were randomly assigned to either the N. sativa (two capsules of 500 mg N. sativa oil) or the placebo group (two capsules of 500 mg mineral oil), for 2 months. The brachial FMD, plasma NOx, vascular cellular adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), and intracellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) were measured. FMD and plasma NOx levels was significantly increased in the N. sativa group compared to the placebo group (changes: 2.97 ± 2.11% vs. 0.71 ± 3.19%, p < 0.001 for FMD and 4.73 ± 7.25 μmol/L vs. 0.99 ± 5.37 μmol/L, p = 0.036 for plasma NOx). However, there was no significant difference in ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 levels between groups. Therefore, N. sativa oil improves vascular NO and FMD in subjects with cardiovascular risk factors. However, more studies are warranted to confirm the beneficial impacts of the N. sativa oil on vascular inflammation.

Triangulating the pharmacological properties of thymoquinone in regulating reactive oxygen species, inflammation, and cancer: Therapeutic applications and mechanistic pathways

Cancer is a heterogeneous disease with high morbidity and mortality rate involving changes in redox balance and deregulation of redox signalling. For decades, studies have involved developing an effective cancer treatment to combat treatment resistance. As natural products such as thymoquinone have numerous health benefits, studies are also focusing on using them as a viable method for cancer treatment, as they have minimal toxic effects compared with standard cancer treatments. Thymoquinone studies have shown numerous mechanisms of action, such as regulation of reactive species interfering with DNA structure, modulating various potential targets and their signalling pathways as well as immunomodulatory effects in vitro and in vivo. Thymoquinone's anti-cancer effect is mainly due to the induction of apoptotic mechanisms, such as activation of caspases, downregulation of precancerous genes, inhibition of nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), anti-tumour cell proliferation, ROS regulation, hypoxia and anti-metastasis. Insight into thymoquinone's potential as an alternative treatment for chemoprevention and inflammation can be accomplished via compiling these studies, to provide a better understanding on how and why it works, as well as its interactions with common chemotherapeutic treatments.

Nigella sativa callus treated with sodium azide exhibit augmented antioxidant activity and DNA damage inhibition

Nigella sativa L. (NS) is an herbaceous plant, possessing phytochemicals of therapeutic importance. Thymoquinone is one of the active phytochemicals of NS that confers noteworthy antioxidant properties. Sodium azide, an agent of abiotic stress, can modulates antioxidant system in plants. In the present investigation, sodium azide (0, 5 µM, 10 µM, 20 µM, 50 µM, 100 µM and 200 µM) doses administered to the in vitro NS callus cultures for production/modification of secondary metabolites with augmented activity. 200 µM sodium azide treated NS callus exhibited maximum peroxidase activity (1.286 ± 0.101 nanokatal mg^-1 protein) and polyphenol oxidase activity (1.590 ± 0.110 nanokatal mg^-1 protein), while 100 µM sodium azide treated NS callus for optimum catalase activity (1.250 ± 0.105 nanokatal mg^-1 protein). Further, 200 µM sodium azide treated NS callus obtained significantly the highest phenolics (3.666 ± 0.475 mg g^-1 callus fresh weight), 20 µM sodium azide treated NS callus, the highest flavonoids (1.308 ± 0.082 mg g^-1 callus fresh weight) and 100 µM sodium azide treated NS callus, the highest carotenes (1.273 ± 0.066 mg g^-1 callus fresh weight). However, NS callus exhibited a decrease in thymoquinone yield/content vis-à-vis possible emergence of its analog with 5.3 min retention time and an increase in antioxidant property. Treatment with 200 µM sodium azide registered significantly the lowest percent yield of callus extract (4.6 ± 0.36 mg g^-1 callus fresh weight) and thymoquinone yield (16.65 ± 2.52 µg g^-1 callus fresh weight) and content (0.36 ± 0.07 mg g^-1 callus dry weight) and the highest antioxidant activity (3.873 ± 0.402%), signifying a negative correlation of the former with the latter. DNA damage inhibition (24.3 ± 1.7%) was recorded significantly maximum at 200 µM sodium azide treatment. Sodium azide treated callus also recorded emergence of a new peak at 5.3 min retention time (possibly an analog of thymoquinone with augmented antioxidant activity) whose area exhibits significantly negative correlation with callus extract yield and thymoquinone yield/content and positive correlation with antioxidant activity and in vitro DNA damage inhibition. Thus, sodium azide treatment to NS callus confers possible production of secondary metabolites or thymoquinone analog (s) responsible for elevated antioxidant property and inhibition to DNA damage. The formation of potent antioxidants through sodium azide treatment to NS could be worthy for nutraceutical and pharmaceutical industries.

Nigella sativa oil inhibits proliferation and stimulates apoptosis of human lymphocytes in vitro

The study aimed to examine the in vitro influence of Nigella sativa oil on human lymphocytes. Cells were stimulated with a monoclonal anti-CD3 antibody in the presence of serial oil ethanol dilutions. Then their proliferation and apoptosis rates were assessed using flow cytometry. Our results demonstrate that the lowest dilutions (1:1 and 1:10) of Nigella sativa oil inhibited lymphocytes' proliferation. The number of cell divisions was 8, 1.25, 1.88 after stimulation with anti-CD3, or its combination with 1:1 and 1:10 oil dilution. The percentage of proliferating cells was 92.48%, 8.75%, 24.3% after stimulation with anti-CD3 antibody, or its combination with 1:1 and 1:10 oil dilution. The mean percentage of living cells was 81% after stimulation with anti-CD3, 13.6%, 19.9% in the presence of 1:1 and 1:10 oil dilution. The preliminary studies show that black seed oil has a potent antiproliferative and proapoptotic effect on human lymphocytes in vitro.

RP-HPLC Estimation of Flavonol Derivatives and Phenolic Acids in Capsicum annuum L. and their Correlation with In Vitro Anti-Inflammatory Activity

BACKGROUND

Flavonol derivative and phenolic acids derived from the plants function as free radical scavengers, reducing agents, and quenchers for the formation of singlet oxygen. Flavonoids and phenolic constituents also play an important role in various human diseases and disorders primarily through modulation of inflammatory responses.

OBJECTIVE

To estimate the Flavonol Derivatives (FD) and phenolic acids (PA) in Capsicum annuum (CA) and other important phytochemicals having an anti-inflammatory effect.

METHODS

In the present study, FD and PA were estimated in CA and in vitro anti-inflammatory activity (pilot study) was determined and correlation was established.

RESULTS

The results were found to be significant using RP-HPLC. FD and PA were found to be 0.0659±0.0058 and 0.0862±0.0.0134 mg/gram dry weight, respectively. For in vitro anti-inflammatory activity, the inhibition of albumin denaturation and antiproteinase activity was found to be maximum in Quercetin (QE) with 98.230±1.589% and 59.906±1.529%, respectively. Heat-induced hemolysis of erythrocytes was found to be maximum in salicylic acid (SA) (71.830±2.838%). Hypotonicity-induced hemolysis showed significant activity with QE (76.770±3.475%). Lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase inhibition was found to be maximum in QE with 56.930±4.069% and 61.660±3.135%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

A strong positive correlation of 0.9 was observed between the extract of CA and standard QE and SA against the anti-inflammatory activity. Therefore, the role of FD and PA has been postulated to be an active phytochemical of CA accountable for its anti-inflammatory activity. However further work is desirable to fully elucidate the phytochemicals responsible for their anti-inflammatory activity and to develop better herbal drug formulations.

Formulation and evaluation of thymoquinone niosomes: application of developed and validated RP-HPLC method in delivery system

A rapid, accurate, and sensitive reverse phase high-performance liquid chromatographic (RP-HPLC) method was developed and validated for the estimation of Thymoquinone (TMQ) in API as well as in noisome. The chromatograms were developed with the mobile phase - water: 2-propanol: methanol (50:45:5 v/v/v) as a solvent system at 254 nm. The method was validated as per ICH guidelines for different parameters and the recovery of TMQ was calculated in developed niosomes. Further, TMQ loaded niosomes (TMQNIOS) were prepared and evaluated for different parameters. The optimized TMQNIOS (F3) was further evaluated for surface morphology, in vitro drug release, permeation study, and confocal laser scanning microscopic (CLSM) study. The method showed linearity range between 6.25 and 100 µg/ml with low detection limit and quantitation limit with a value of 2.08 and 6.25 µg/ml. The developed formulations showed the vesicle size and encapsulation efficiency in the range of 157.32 ± 3.15 to 211.44 ± 5.23 nm and 59.32 ± 4.87 to 83.21 ± 3.55%, respectively. The drug release result showed the significant higher release from TMQNIOS in compared to TMQDIS, and the release kinetics data showed Higuchi's equation with highest regression coefficient values. The permeation study and the confocal laser microscopy study further confirmed the enhancement in permeation of TMQ in the intestinal mucosa.