Targeting the gut-liver axis in cirrhosis: antibiotics and non-selective β-blockers

Therapies for Cirrhotic Cardiomyopathy: Current Perspectives and Future Possibilities

Cirrhotic cardiomyopathy (CCM) is defined as cardiac dysfunction associated with cirrhosis in the absence of pre-existing heart disease. CCM manifests as the enlargement of cardiac chambers, attenuated systolic and diastolic contractile responses to stress stimuli, and repolarization changes. CCM significantly contributes to mortality and morbidity in patients who undergo liver transplantation and contributes to the pathogenesis of hepatorenal syndrome/acute kidney injury. There is currently no specific treatment. The traditional management for non-cirrhotic cardiomyopathies, such as vasodilators or diuretics, is not applicable because an important feature of cirrhosis is decreased systemic vascular resistance; therefore, vasodilators further worsen the peripheral vasodilatation and hypotension. Long-term diuretic use may cause electrolyte imbalances and potentially renal injury. The heart of the cirrhotic patient is insensitive to cardiac glycosides. Therefore, these types of medications are not useful in patients with CCM. Exploring the therapeutic strategies of CCM is of the utmost importance. The present review summarizes the possible treatment of CCM. We detail the current status of non-selective beta-blockers (NSBBs) in the management of cirrhotic patients and discuss the controversies surrounding NSBBs in clinical practice. Other possible therapeutic agents include drugs with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic functions; such effects may have potential clinical application. These drugs currently are mainly based on animal studies and include statins, taurine, spermidine, galectin inhibitors, albumin, and direct antioxidants. We conclude with speculations on the future research directions in CCM treatment.

Liver cirrhosis and complications from the perspective of dysbiosis

The gut-liver axis refers to the intimate relationship and rigorous interaction between the gut and the liver. The intestinal barrier's integrity is critical for maintaining liver homeostasis. The liver operates as a second firewall in this interaction, limiting the movement of potentially dangerous compounds from the gut and, as a result, contributing in barrier management. An increasing amount of evidence shows that increased intestinal permeability and subsequent bacterial translocation play a role in liver damage development. The major pathogenic causes in cirrhotic individuals include poor intestinal permeability, nutrition, and intestinal flora dysbiosis. Portal hypertension promotes intestinal permeability and bacterial translocation in advanced liver disease, increasing liver damage. Bacterial dysbiosis is closely related to the development of cirrhosis and its related complications. This article describes the potential mechanisms of dysbiosis in liver cirrhosis and related complications, such as spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, hepatorenal syndrome, portal vein thrombosis, hepatic encephalopathy, and hepatocellular carcinoma, using dysbiosis of the intestinal flora as an entry point.

The Intestinal Microbiota in the Development of Chronic Liver Disease: Current Status

Chronic liver disease (CLD) is a significant global health burden, leading to millions of deaths annually. The gut-liver axis plays a pivotal role in this context, allowing the transport of gut-derived products directly to the liver, as well as biological compounds from the liver to the intestine. The gut microbiota plays a significant role in maintaining the health of the digestive system. A change in gut microbiome composition as seen in dysbiosis is associated with immune dysregulation, altered energy and gut hormone regulation, and increased intestinal permeability, contributing to inflammatory mechanisms and damage to the liver, irrespective of the underlying etiology of CLD. The aim of this review is to present the current knowledge about the composition of the intestinal microbiome in healthy individuals and those with CLD, including the factors that affect this composition, the impact of the altered microbiome on the liver, and the mechanisms by which it occurs. Furthermore, this review analyzes the effects of gut microbiome modulation on the course of CLD, by using pharmacotherapy, nutrition, fecal microbiota transplantation, supplements, and probiotics. This review opens avenues for the translation of knowledge about gut-liver interplay into clinical practice as an additional tool to fight CLD and its complications.

Non-Selective Beta-Blockers and Risk of Sepsis in Patients with Cirrhosis and Ascites: Results from a Large Observational Study

Background and Aims

Previous studies have not been able to determine whether non-selective beta-blockers (NSBB) reduce the risk of sepsis in cirrhosis. We aimed to examine this question with data from 1198 patients with cirrhosis and ascites included in clinical studies of satavaptan, a vasopressin receptor antagonist with no effect on infection risk.

Methods

Risk of sepsis was estimated for NSBB users vs nonusers. Patients were examined every four weeks, or in relation to hospitalization, for the one-year duration of the trials. We computed the cumulative risk of sepsis for patients who did vs did not use NSBB at baseline. We used Cox regression to compare hazard rates of sepsis between current users and nonusers, accounting for changes in NSBB use over time. We adjusted for patient sex and age, MELD-Na score, albumin, use of antibiotics, use of proton pump inhibitors, cirrhosis etiology, history of variceal bleeding or SBP, severity of ascites and HE, HCC, other cancers, and diabetes, while stratifying on geographical region.

Results

Of the 1198 patients, 54% used NSBB at some time. There were 56 sepsis episodes. The 1-year risk of sepsis was reduced to 5.7% (95% confidence interval [CI] 2.8-8.6) in baseline NSBB users vs 11.6% (95% CI 7.0-15.9) in baseline nonusers. The hazard ratio of sepsis for current NSBB users vs current nonusers was reduced to 0.5 (95% CI 0.3-0.8) and after adjustment to 0.7 (95% CI 0.4-1.3).

Conclusion

NSBB use may reduce the risk of sepsis in patients with cirrhosis and ascites, but the precision of the estimate was limited by the number of episodes of sepsis.

Rifaximin-α for liver fibrosis in patients with alcohol-related liver disease (GALA-RIF): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2 trial

BACKGROUND

Alcohol is the leading cause of liver-related mortality worldwide. The gut-liver axis is considered a key driver in alcohol-related liver disease. Rifaximin-α improves gut-barrier function and reduces systemic inflammation in patients with cirrhosis. We aimed to compare the efficacy and safety of rifaximin-α with placebo in patients with alcohol-related liver disease.

METHODS

GALA-RIF was an investigator-initiated, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, single-centre, phase 2 trial done at Odense University Hospital in Denmark. Eligible participants were adults (aged 18-75 years) who had current or previous alcohol overuse (at least 1 year with ≥24 g of alcohol per day for women and ≥36 g of alcohol per day for men), biopsy-proven alcohol-related liver disease, and no previous hepatic decompensation. Patients were randomly allocated (1:1) through a web-based randomisation system to receive oral rifaximin-α (550 mg) twice daily or matched placebo for 18 months. Randomisation was done in blocks of four and stratified according to fibrosis stage and alcohol abstinence. Participants, sponsor, investigators, and nurses involved in the study were masked to the randomisation outcome. The primary endpoint was a histological decrease from baseline to 18-month treatment of at least one fibrosis stage, according to the Kleiner fibrosis score. We also assessed the number of patients with progression by at least one fibrosis stage from baseline to 18 months. Primary analyses were done in the per-protocol and modified intention-to-treat populations; safety was assessed in the full intention-to-treat population. The per-protocol population was defined as all randomly assigned patients who did not present serious protocol violations, who ingested at least 75% of the treatment, and who were not withdrawn from the study due to non-adherence (interruption of treatment for 4 weeks or more). Participants receiving at least one dose of the intervention were included in the modified intention-to-treat analyses. This completed trial is registered with EudraCT, number 2014-001856-51.

FINDINGS

Between March 23, 2015, and Nov 10, 2021, we screened 1886 consecutive patients with a history of excessive alcohol consumption and no previous hepatic decompensation, of whom 136 were randomly assigned to either rifaximin-α (n=68) or placebo (n=68). All patients were White (100%), 114 (84%) were men, and 22 (16%) were women. 133 (98%) patients received at least one dose of the intervention and were included in the modified intention-to-treat analysis; 108 (79%) completed the trial per protocol. In the per-protocol analysis, 14 (26%) of 54 patients in the rifaximin-α group and 15 (28%) of 54 patients in the placebo group had a decrease in fibrosis stage after 18 months (odds ratio 1·10 [95% CI 0·45-2·68]; p=0·83). In the modified intention-to-treat analysis, 15 (22%) of 67 patients in the rifaximin-α group and 15 (23%) of 66 patients in the placebo group had a decrease in fibrosis stage at 18 months (1·05 [0·45-2·44]; p=0·91). In the per-protocol analysis, increase in fibrosis stage occurred in 13 (24%) patients in the rifaximin-α group and 23 (43%) patients in the placebo group (0·42 [0·18-0·98]; p=0·044). In the modified intention-to-treat analysis, increase in fibrosis stage occurred in 13 (19%) patients in the rifaximin-α group and 23 (35%) patients in the placebo group (0·45 [0·20-1·02]; p=0·055). The number of patients with adverse events (48 [71%] of 68 patients in the rifaximin-α group; 53 [78%] of 68 in the placebo group) and serious adverse events (14 [21%] in the rifaximin-α group; 12 [18%] in the placebo group) was similar between the groups. No serious adverse events were deemed related to treatment. Three patients died during the trial, but none of the deaths were considered treatment related.

INTERPRETATION

In patients with alcohol-related liver disease, rifaximin-α might reduce progression of liver fibrosis. These findings warrant confirmation in a multicentre phase 3 trial.

FUNDING

The EU Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Program and The Novo Nordisk Foundation.

Potential therapies for acute-on-chronic liver failure

Acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) is a syndrome that develops in approximately 30% of patients hospitalised with cirrhosis and is characterised by an acute decompensation of liver function associated with extra-hepatic organ failures and a high short-term mortality. At present, no specific therapies are available for ACLF, and current management is limited to treatment of the precipitating event and organ support. Given the high prevalence and high mortality of this severe liver disease, there is an urgent need for targeted treatments. There is increasing evidence of the important role played by systemic inflammation and immune dysfunction in the pathophysiology of ACLF and a better understanding of these immune processes is resulting in new therapeutic targets. The aim of this review is to present an overview of ongoing studies of potentially promising therapies and how they could be utilised in the management of ACLF.

Glucocorticoid Treatment Strategies in Liver Failure

Liver failure is characterized by serious liver decompensation and high mortality. The activation of systemic immune responses and systemic inflammation are widely accepted as the core pathogenesis of liver failure. Glucocorticoids (GCs) are most regularly utilized to suppress excessive inflammatory reactions and immunological responses. GCs have been used in the clinical treatment of liver failure for nearly 60 years. While there has been no unanimity on the feasibility and application of GC treatment in liver failure until recently. The most recent trials have produced conflicting results when it comes to the dose and time for GC therapy of different etiology of liver failure. Our review outlines the issues and options in managing GC treatment in liver failure based on an investigation of the molecular mechanism that GC may give in the treatment.

Treatment of Severe Acute on Chronic Liver Failure: Management of Organ Failures, Investigational Therapeutics, and the Role of Liver Transplantation

Acute on chronic liver failure (ACLF) is a unique syndrome that afflicts patients with chronic liver disease and results in high short-term mortality, in the setting of organ system failures. Given this prognosis, there is an urgent need to understand risk factors for this condition, for appropriate medical management of organ failures, and for selection criteria for patients who may benefit from liver transplantation (LT). Although several definitions exist to identify ACLF, all of them are designed to identify patients with uniquely high mortality. Currently, management of severe ACLF relies on best supportive care for specific organ failures. Thromboelastography should guide the evaluation of coagulation pathways and hyperfibrinolysis in ACLF; prophylactic blood product transfusions and thrombopoetin agonists are not recommended. Combination therapy with terlipressin and albumin has been shown to be efficacious in the management of the hepatorenal syndrome but should be administered with caution in patients with ACLF-3. Recent data have characterized the role of beta-blockers and transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt placement in the management of ACLF. Investigational therapies such as extracorporeal liver support and hepatocyte stem cell therapies have shown promise; larger scale studies may better define the subpopulations of patients with ACLF mostly likely to benefit from these evolving therapeutics. Regarding LT in ACLF, data suggest that even patients with 3 or more organ system failures may have a 1-year survival >80%. However, further efforts are needed to understand the predictors of post-LT survival to facilitate LT criteria for this condition.

β-blockers in advanced cirrhosis: More friend than enemy

Nonselective beta-adrenergic blocker (NSBB) therapy for the prevention of initial and recurrent gastrointestinal bleeding in cirrhotic patients with gastroesophageal varices has been used for the past four decades. NSBB therapy is considered the cornerstone of treatment for varices, and has become the standard of care. However, a 2010 study from the group that pioneered β-blocker therapy suggested a detrimental effect of NSBBs in decompensated cirrhosis, especially in patients with refractory ascites. Since then, numerous additional studies have incompletely resolved whether NSBBs are deleterious, although more recent evidence weighs against a harmful effect. The possibility of a "therapeutic window" has also been raised. We aimed to review the literature to analyze the pros and cons of using NSBBs in patients with cirrhosis, not only with respect to bleeding or mortality but also to other potential benefits and risks. β-blockers are highly effective in preventing first bleeding and recurrent bleeding. Furthermore, NSBBs improve congestion/ischemia of the gut mucosa, decrease intestinal permeability, and therefore indirectly alleviate systemic inflammation. β-blockers shorten the electrocardiographic prolonged QTc interval and may also decrease the incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma. On the other hand, the possibility of deleterious effects in cirrhosis has not been completely eliminated. NSBBs may be associated with an increased risk of portal vein thrombosis, although this could be correlational artifact. Overall, we conclude that β-blockers in cirrhosis are much more of a friend than enemy.

Low dose of propranolol treatment is associated with better survival in cirrhotic patients with hepatic encephalopathy

OBJECTIVE

The use of nonselective beta blockers in cirrhotic patients experiencing complications is controversial. We aimed to investigate the association between propranolol treatment and outcomes for cirrhotic patients with hepatic encephalopathy.

METHODS

Using data from the Taiwan National Health Insurance Research Database, we identified 4754 cirrhotic patients newly diagnosed with hepatic encephalopathy between 2001 and 2010. Among them, 519 patients received propranolol treatment and the other 519 patients without exposure to propranolol were enrolled into our study, both of which were matched by sex, age, and propensity score. The Kaplan-Meier method and time-dependent-modified Cox proportional hazards models were employed for survival and multivariate-stratified analyses.

RESULTS

The median overall survival (OS) was significantly longer in the propranolol-treated cohort than in the untreated cohort (3.46 versus 1.88 years, P < 0.001). A dose-dependent increase in survival was observed (median OS: 4.49, 3.29, and 2.46 years in patients treated with propranolol more than 30 , 20-30 , and less than 20 mg/day, respectively [P < 0.001, P = 0.001, and P = 0.079 versus the untreated group]). In addition to reduce the risk of mortality (adjusted hazard ratio, 0.58; P < 0.001), propranolol also diminished the risk of sepsis-related death (adjusted hazard ratio, 0.31; P = 0.006) according to the multivariate analysis. However, the risk of circulatory or hepatic failure was nonsignificantly altered by propranolol treatment.

CONCLUSION

Low dose of propranolol treatment was associated with a better OS in cirrhotic patients with hepatic encephalopathy and its effects were dose dependent.

Precipitants of Acute-on-Chronic Liver Failure: An Opportunity for Preventative Measures to Improve Outcomes

Acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) is a feared complication that can develop at any stage of chronic liver disease. The incidence of ACLF is increasing, leading to a significant burden to both the affected individual and health care systems. To date, our understanding of ACLF suggests that it may be initiated by precipitants such as systemic infection, alcohol use, or viral hepatitis. The prevalence of these vary significantly by geography and underlying liver disease, and these precipitants have a varying impact on patient prognosis. Herein, we present a review of our current understanding of the precipitants of ACLF, including gaps in current data and opportunities for meaningful intervention and areas of future research.

Pharmacologic Management of Portal Hypertension

Terlipressin, somatostatin, or octreotide are recommended as pharmacologic treatment of acute variceal hemorrhage. Nonselective β-blockers decrease the risk of variceal hemorrhage and hepatic decompensation, particularly in those 30% to 40% of patients with good hemodynamic response. Carvedilol, statins, and anticoagulants are promising agents in the management of portal hypertension. Recent advances in the pharmacologic treatment of portal hypertension have mainly focused on modifying an increased intrahepatic resistance through nitric oxide and/or modulation of vasoactive substances. Several novel pharmacologic agents for portal hypertension are being evaluated in humans.

Unresolved issues in the prophylaxis of bacterial infections in patients with cirrhosis

Bacterial infections are highly prevalent and a frequent cause of hospitalization and short-term mortality in patients with cirrhosis. Due to their negative impact on survival, antibiotic prophylaxis for bacterial infections in high-risk subgroups of patients with cirrhosis has been the standard of care for decades. Patients with prophylaxis indications include those at risk for a first episode of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP) due to a low ascitic fluid protein count and impaired liver and kidney function, patients with a prior episode of SBP and those with an episode of gastrointestinal bleeding. Only prophylaxis due to gastrointestinal bleeding has a known and short-time duration. All other indications imply long-lasting exposure to antibiotics - once the threshold requirement for initiating prophylaxis is met - without standardized criteria for re-assessing antibiotic interruption. Despite the fact that the benefit of antibiotic prophylaxis in reducing bacterial infections episodes and mortality has been thoroughly reported, the extended use of antibiotics in patients with cirrhosis has also had negative consequences, including the emergence of multi-drug resistant bacteria. Currently, it is not clear whether restricting the use of broad and fixed antibiotic regimens, tailoring the choice of antibiotics to local bacterial epidemiology or selecting non-antibiotic strategies will be the preferred antibiotic prophylaxis strategy for patients with cirrhosis in the future.

Novel perspectives in the management of decompensated cirrhosis

The current approaches to the management of patients with decompensated cirrhosis are based on targeted strategies aimed at preventing or treating specific complications of the disease. The improved knowledge of the pathophysiological background of advanced cirrhosis, represented by a sustained systemic inflammation strictly linked to a circulatory dysfunction, provides a novel paradigm for the management of these patients, with the ambitious target of modifying the course of the disease by preventing the onset of complications and multiorgan failure; these interventions will eventually improve patients' quality of life, prolong survival and reduce health-care costs. Besides aetiological treatments, these goals could be achieved by persistently antagonizing key pathophysiological events, such as portal hypertension, abnormal bacterial translocation from the gut, liver damage, systemic inflammation, circulatory dysfunction and altered immunological responses. Interestingly, in addition to strategies based on new therapeutic agents, these targets can be tackled by employing drugs that are already used in patients with cirrhosis for different indications or in other clinical settings, including non-absorbable oral antibiotics, non-selective β-blockers, human albumin and statins. The scope of the present Review includes reporting updated information on the treatments that promise to influence the course of advanced cirrhosis and thus act as disease-modifying agents.

On the potential role of intestinal microbial community in hepatocarcinogenesis in chronic hepatitis B

The chronic infection of hepatitis B virus (HBV) is the most potent risk factor for the development of cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The association of intestinal microbiota alteration with progressive liver disease has been investigated in recent studies. Overgrowth of potentially pathogenic bacteria of gram‐negative species and, in particular, a significant increase in the fecal count of Escherichia coli (E. coli) are characterized in the presence of HCC. This study was conducted to describe the characteristics of the intestinal microbiota related to the presence of HCC in HBV‐carrier patients. The available literature indicates the colonization of E. coli as principal source of portal vein lipopolysaccharide (LPS), in the gut may contribute to the carcinogenesis process by inducing chronic inflammation. This understanding could help to predict the clinical outcomes in HBV‐carrier patients and innovative strategies to reduce the virulence of liver disease from intestinal dysbiosis.

Managing portal hypertension in patients with liver cirrhosis

Portal hypertension is one cause and a part of a dynamic process triggered by chronic liver disease, mostly induced by alcohol or incorrect nutrition and less often by viral infections and autoimmune or genetic disease. Adequate staging - continuously modified by current knowledge - should guide the prevention and treatment of portal hypertension with defined endpoints. The main goals are interruption of etiology and prevention of complications followed, if necessary, by treatment of these. For the past few decades, shunts, mostly as intrahepatic stent bypass between portal and hepatic vein branches, have played an important role in the prevention of recurrent bleeding and ascites formation, although their impact on survival remains ambiguous. Systemic drugs, such as non-selective beta-blockers, statins, or antibiotics, reduce portal hypertension by decreasing intrahepatic resistance or portal tributary blood flow or by blunting inflammatory stimuli inside and outside the liver. Here, the interactions among the gut, liver, and brain are increasingly examined for new therapeutic options. There is no general panacea. The interruption of initiating factors is key. If not possible or if not possible in a timely manner, combined approaches should receive more attention before considering liver transplantation.

Origins of Portal Hypertension in Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) advanced to cirrhosis is often complicated by clinically significant portal hypertension, which is primarily caused by increased intrahepatic vascular resistance. Liver fibrosis has been identified as a critical determinant of this process. However, there is evidence that portal venous pressure may begin to rise in the earliest stages of NAFLD when fibrosis is far less advanced or absent. The biological and clinical significance of these early changes in sinusoidal homeostasis remains unclear. Experimental and human observations indicate that sinusoidal space restriction due to hepatocellular lipid accumulation and ballooning may impair sinusoidal flow and generate shear stress, increasingly disrupting sinusoidal microcirculation. Sinusoidal endothelial cells, hepatic stellate cells, and Kupffer cells are key partners of hepatocytes affected by NAFLD in promoting endothelial dysfunction through enhanced contractility, capillarization, adhesion and entrapment of blood cells, extracellular matrix deposition, and neovascularization. These biomechanical and rheological changes are aggravated by a dysfunctional gut-liver axis and splanchnic vasoregulation, culminating in fibrosis and clinically significant portal hypertension. We may speculate that increased portal venous pressure is an essential element of the pathogenesis across the entire spectrum of NAFLD. Improved methods of noninvasive portal venous pressure monitoring will hopefully give new insights into the pathobiology of NAFLD and help efforts to identify patients at increased risk for adverse outcomes. In addition, novel drug candidates targeting reversible components of aberrant sinusoidal circulation may prevent progression in NAFLD.

Antifibrotic and molecular aspects of rifaximin in alcoholic liver disease: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial

Background

Alcoholic liver disease is the leading cause of cirrhosis worldwide. Due to an increase in alcohol overuse, alcoholic liver disease has become an increased burden on health care systems. Abstinence from alcohol remains the cornerstone of alcoholic liver disease treatment; however, this approach is hampered by frequent relapse and lack of specific therapy for treating advanced cases of liver disease. In the present study, we hypothesized that gut microbiota drive the development of liver fibrosis and that modulation of gut microbiota with the gut-selective, nonabsorbable antibiotic rifaximin attenuates alcoholic liver fibrosis.

Methods/design

Our double-blind, placebo-controlled trial will include 136 participants with biopsy-verified alcoholic fibrosis (Ishak liver fibrosis score of 1–4). Participants are randomized 1:1 to receive placebo or 550 mg of rifaximin twice daily for 18 months. A liver biopsy will be performed at the end of the treatment period to evaluate the effect of drug treatment on liver fibrosis. Stool, urine, and saliva specimens will be collected before treatment begins, at 1 month, and at the end of the treatment period. Fecal samples are used for microbiome deep sequencing. Changes in microbiome composition are compared before and after the trial medication period and linked to changes in liver fibrosis.

Discussion

This is the first clinical trial to evaluate the effect of gut microbiota on liver fibrosis in humans. If gut microbiota are an important promoter of alcoholic liver disease, current results may open new therapeutic avenues and revolutionize the current understanding of chronic liver diseases.

Trial registration

EudraCT, 2014–001856-51. Registered on 16 August 2014.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13063-018-2523-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Non-selective beta-blocker treatment does not impact on kidney function in cirrhotic patients with varices

GOALS AND BACKGROUND

Non-selective beta-blockers (NSBBs) are used for bleeding prophylaxis in cirrhotic patients with gastroesophageal varices (GEVs). Recent data suggested that NSBB treatment might increase the risk of renal dysfunction in patients with refractory ascites due to an impaired response to acute haemodynamic stress.

STUDY

Retrospective longitudinal assessment of kidney function in a cohort of cirrhotic patients with GEVs with vs. without NSBB therapy. Serum creatinine (SCre), estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), incidence of acute kidney injury (AKI), new onset of large volume ascites and TIPS-/transplant-free survival were compared.

RESULTS

Among 176 patients, 93 patients received NSBBs, while 83 did not. Most patients were male (77.8%), had alcoholic aetiology (52.3%) and compensated cirrhosis (51.1% Child-A, MELD: 12.1 ± 3.8). Over a 3-year follow-up, renal function was comparable between patients with and without NSBB treatment. Incidence of AKI was similar in NSBB vs. no-NSBB patients (p = .323). Even in potential risk groups (ascites, MAP <90 mmHg, baseline creatinine > ULN, hyponatraemia, MELD score ≥15 points, Child-Pugh B/C), there was no difference in SCre or eGFR with vs. without NSBBs (p = n.s. at 74/78 and 76/78 of analysed time points). However, multivariate analysis revealed that the presence of ascites (HR: 3.901, 95%CI: 1.352-11.251; p = .012) and pre-existing renal impairment (HR: 4.315, 95%CI: 1.054-17.672; p = .042) were independent risk factors for AKI. Importantly, NSBB use (HR: 0.319, 95%CI: 0.120-0.848; p = .022) was independently associated with improved TIPS-/transplant-free survival.

CONCLUSIONS

In our cohort of unselected, mostly compensated cirrhotic patients with GEVs, NSBB treatment was neither associated with worsening of kidney function nor with increased incidence of AKI. On the contrary, NSBB treatment improved TIPS-/transplant-free survival.

The gut microbiome and liver cancer: mechanisms and clinical translation

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the third leading cause of worldwide cancer mortality. HCC almost exclusively develops in patients with chronic liver disease, driven by a vicious cycle of liver injury, inflammation and regeneration that typically spans decades. Increasing evidence points towards a key role of the bacterial microbiome in promoting the progression of liver disease and the development of HCC. Here, we will review mechanisms by which the gut microbiota promotes hepatocarcinogenesis, focusing on the leaky gut, bacterial dysbiosis, microbe-associated molecular patterns and bacterial metabolites as key pathways that drive cancer-promoting liver inflammation, fibrosis and genotoxicity. On the basis of accumulating evidence from preclinical studies, we propose the intestinal-microbiota-liver axis as a promising target for the simultaneous prevention of chronic liver disease progression and HCC development in patients with advanced liver disease. We will review in detail therapeutic modalities and discuss clinical settings in which targeting the gut-microbiota-liver axis for the prevention of disease progression and HCC development seems promising.

Prebiotics: A Novel Approach to Treat Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma is one of the fatal malignancies and is considered as the third leading cause of death. Mutations, genetic modifications, dietary aflatoxins, or impairments in the regulation of oncogenic pathways may bring about liver cancer. An effective barrier against hepatotoxins is offered by gut-liver axis as a change in gut permeability and expanded translocation of lipopolysaccharides triggers the activation of Toll-like receptors which stimulate the process of hepatocarcinogenesis. Prebiotics, nondigestible oligosaccharides, have a pivotal role to play when it comes to inducing an antitumor effect. A healthy gut flora balance is imperative to downregulation of inflammatory cytokines and reducing lipopolysaccharides induced endotoxemia, thus inducing the antitumor effect.

Treatment with non-selective beta blockers is associated with reduced severity of systemic inflammation and improved survival of patients with acute-on-chronic liver failure

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Non-selective beta blockers (NSBBs) have been shown to have deleterious outcomes in patients with refractory ascites, alcoholic hepatitis and spontaneous bacterial peritonitis leading many physicians to stop the drug in these cases. Acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) is characterized by systemic inflammation and high mortality. As NSBBs may have beneficial effects on gut motility and permeability and, systemic inflammation, the aims of this prospective, observational study were to determine whether ongoing use of NSBBs reduced 28-day mortality in ACLF patients.

METHODS

The study was performed in 349 patients with ACLF included in the CANONIC study, which is a prospective observational investigation in hospitalized cirrhotic patients with acute deterioration. The data about the use of NSBBs, its type and dosage was specifically recorded. Patient characteristics at enrollment significantly associated with treatment and mortality were taken into account as potential confounders to adjust for treatment effect. A logistic regression model was fitted.

RESULTS

164 (47%) ACLF patients received NSBBs whereas 185 patients did not. Although the CLIF-C ACLF scores were similar at presentation, more patients in the NSBB treated group had lower grades of ACLF (p=0.047) at presentation and significantly more patients improved. Forty patients (24.4%) died in NSBB treated group compared with 63 patients (34.1%) (p=0.048) [estimated risk-reduction 0.596 (95%CI: 0.361-0.985; p=0.0436)]. This improvement in survival was associated with a significantly lower white cell count (NSBB: 8.5 (5.8); no NSBB: 10.8 (6.6); p=0.002). No long-term improvement in survival was observed.

CONCLUSIONS

This study shows for the first time that ongoing treatment with NSBBs in cirrhosis is safe and reduces the mortality if they develop ACLF. Careful thought should be given before stopping NSBBs in cirrhotic patients.

Gut Microbiota and Hepatocellular Carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a common complication of liver diseases such as those related to viral hepatitis and liver cirrhosis. The gut-liver axis is gaining increasing attention as a key pathophysiological mechanism responsible for the progression of HCC. Here, we will review the data from the published literature to address the association between HCC and gut microbiota.

SUMMARY

The presence of high levels of endotoxemia in the blood results in portal hypertension and ensuing hepatocyte damage, thus leading to the development of HCC. Probiotics can be used to treat or prevent the progression of HCC, because they may decrease the counts of gut microbiota and thus improve the endotoxemia.

KEY MESSAGE

Increased bacterial translocation can result in endotoxemia, which may play a critical role in the progression of HCC. Modulation of the gut microbiota by probiotics may represent a new avenue for therapeutic intervention in HCC.

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

Breakdown in intestinal barrier function and bacterial overgrowth are main events in the development of HCC. When the intestinal barrier function is disrupted, large amounts of bacterial products can enter the liver and induce inflammation through their receptors, leading to liver diseases. Altering the gut microflora has been proposed as an adjunctive therapy to reduce bacterial translocation and prevent progression of HCC. The purpose of this review is to discuss the relationship between gut microbiota and HCC in both pathogenesis and treatment by probiotics.

Acute kidney injury and hepatorenal syndrome in cirrhosis

Cirrhosis is the eighth leading cause of "years of lost life" in the United States and accounts for approximately 1% to 2% of all deaths in Europe. Patients with cirrhosis have a high risk of developing acute kidney injury. The clinical characteristics of hepatorenal syndrome (HRS) are similar to prerenal uremia, but the condition does not respond to volume expansion. HRS type 1 is rapidly progressive whereas HRS type 2 has a slower course often associated with refractory ascites. A number of factors can precipitate HRS such as infections, alcoholic hepatitis, and bleeding. The monitoring, prevention, early detection, and treatment of HRS are essential. This paper reviews the value of early evaluation of renal function based on two new sets of diagnostic criteria. Interventions for HRS type 1 include terlipressin combined with albumin. In HRS type 2, transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS) should be considered. For both types of HRS patients should be evaluated for liver transplantation.