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Wang Y, Chen L, Wang Y, Wang X, Qian D, Yan J, Sun Z, Cui P, Yu L, Wu J, He Z. Marine biomaterials in biomedical nano/micro-systems. J Nanobiotechnology 2023; 21:408. [PMID: 37926815 PMCID: PMC10626837 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-023-02112-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 09/15/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Marine resources in unique marine environments provide abundant, cost-effective natural biomaterials with distinct structures, compositions, and biological activities compared to terrestrial species. These marine-derived raw materials, including polysaccharides, natural protein components, fatty acids, and marine minerals, etc., have shown great potential in preparing, stabilizing, or modifying multifunctional nano-/micro-systems and are widely applied in drug delivery, theragnostic, tissue engineering, etc. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the most current marine biomaterial-based nano-/micro-systems developed over the past three years, primarily focusing on therapeutic delivery studies and highlighting their potential to cure a variety of diseases. Specifically, we first provided a detailed introduction to the physicochemical characteristics and biological activities of natural marine biocomponents in their raw state. Furthermore, the assembly processes, potential functionalities of each building block, and a thorough evaluation of the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of advanced marine biomaterial-based systems and their effects on molecular pathophysiological processes were fully elucidated. Finally, a list of unresolved issues and pivotal challenges of marine-derived biomaterials applications, such as standardized distinction of raw materials, long-term biosafety in vivo, the feasibility of scale-up, etc., was presented. This review is expected to serve as a roadmap for fundamental research and facilitate the rational design of marine biomaterials for diverse emerging applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanan Wang
- Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth Systems, Key Laboratory of Marine Chemistry Theory and Technology, Ministry of Education/Sanya Oceanographic Institution, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China
- Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth Systems, Key Laboratory of Marine Chemistry Theory and Technology, Ministry of Education/Sanya Oceanographic Institution, Ocean University of China, Sanya, 572024, China
| | - Long Chen
- Department of Orthopedics, Guizhou Provincial People's Hospital, Guiyang, 55000, Guizhou, China
| | - Yuanzheng Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, Guizhou Provincial People's Hospital, Guiyang, 55000, Guizhou, China.
| | - Xinyuan Wang
- Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth Systems, Key Laboratory of Marine Chemistry Theory and Technology, Ministry of Education/Sanya Oceanographic Institution, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China
- Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth Systems, Key Laboratory of Marine Chemistry Theory and Technology, Ministry of Education/Sanya Oceanographic Institution, Ocean University of China, Sanya, 572024, China
| | - Deyao Qian
- Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth Systems, Key Laboratory of Marine Chemistry Theory and Technology, Ministry of Education/Sanya Oceanographic Institution, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China
- Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth Systems, Key Laboratory of Marine Chemistry Theory and Technology, Ministry of Education/Sanya Oceanographic Institution, Ocean University of China, Sanya, 572024, China
| | - Jiahui Yan
- Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth Systems, Key Laboratory of Marine Chemistry Theory and Technology, Ministry of Education/Sanya Oceanographic Institution, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China
- Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth Systems, Key Laboratory of Marine Chemistry Theory and Technology, Ministry of Education/Sanya Oceanographic Institution, Ocean University of China, Sanya, 572024, China
| | - Zeyu Sun
- Department of Orthopedics, Guizhou Provincial People's Hospital, Guiyang, 55000, Guizhou, China
| | - Pengfei Cui
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China.
| | - Liangmin Yu
- Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth Systems, Key Laboratory of Marine Chemistry Theory and Technology, Ministry of Education/Sanya Oceanographic Institution, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China
- Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth Systems, Key Laboratory of Marine Chemistry Theory and Technology, Ministry of Education/Sanya Oceanographic Institution, Ocean University of China, Sanya, 572024, China
| | - Jun Wu
- Division of Life Science, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong SAR, 999077, China.
| | - Zhiyu He
- Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth Systems, Key Laboratory of Marine Chemistry Theory and Technology, Ministry of Education/Sanya Oceanographic Institution, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China.
- Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth Systems, Key Laboratory of Marine Chemistry Theory and Technology, Ministry of Education/Sanya Oceanographic Institution, Ocean University of China, Sanya, 572024, China.
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Biological Application of Novel Biodegradable Cellulose Composite as a Hemostatic Material. Mediators Inflamm 2022; 2022:4083477. [PMID: 35990042 PMCID: PMC9385320 DOI: 10.1155/2022/4083477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2022] [Revised: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Degradable hemostatic materials have unique advantages in reducing the amount of bleeding, shortening the surgical operation time, and improving patient prognosis. However, none of the current hemostatic materials are ideal and have disadvantages. Therefore, a novel biodegradable cellulose-based composite hemostatic material was prepared by crosslinking sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (CCNa) and hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC), following an improved vacuum freeze-drying method. The resulting cellulose composite material was neutral in pH and spongy with a density of 0.042 g/cm3, a porosity of 77.68%, and an average pore size of 13.45 μm. The composite's compressive and tensile strengths were 0.1 MPa and 15.2 MPa, respectively. Under in vitro conditions, the composites were degraded gradually through petite molecule stripping and dissolution, reaching 96.8% after 14 days and 100% degradation rate at 21 days. When implanted into rats, the degradation rate of the composite was slightly faster, reaching 99.7% in 14 days and 100% in 21 days. Histology showed a stable inflammatory response and no evidence of cell degeneration, necrosis, or abnormal hyperplasia in the tissues around the embedded material, indicating good biocompatibility. In the hemorrhagic liver model, the time to hemostasis and the total blood loss in the cellulose composite group was significantly lower than in the medical gauze group and the blank control group (P < 0.05). These data indicate that the novel cellulose composite is a promising implantable hemostatic material in clinical settings.
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Sabab A, Vediappan RS, Finnie J, McAdam CJ, Jukes A, Vreugde S, Wormald PJ. Efficacy and Safety of Novel Beta-Chitin Patches as Haemostat in Rat Vascular and Neurosurgical Model. Front Surg 2022; 9:830364. [PMID: 35465434 PMCID: PMC9023757 DOI: 10.3389/fsurg.2022.830364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Accepted: 03/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BackgroundIntraoperative hemorrhage is a major cause of poor post-operative outcome. Beta-chitin patch has previously been found to be an effective haemostat, but whether modifying the patch can improve its efficacy and safety, remains unknown. In this study, beta-chitin patches were modified using polyethylene oxide, Pluronic-F127 (Chi/F127), calcium (Chi/20%Ca), increased thickness (Chi/Thick) or polyphosphate (Chi/PP).ObjectiveUsing rat (Wistar Albino; 8–10 weeks old) vascular and neurosurgical models, this project investigated and compared the efficacy and safety of beta-chitin patches with gauze, Surgicel and FloSeal.MethodsNinety rats underwent a standardized femoral artery injury and were randomized to receive either beta-chitin patches, gauze, Surgicel or FloSeal. The bleeding time and total blood loss was measured. For the neurosurgical model, forty-four rats underwent a standardized cortical injury and randomization to a treatment group. Following a 48 h recovery period, their brains were collected for histopathological examination.ResultsThe mean bleeding time with Chitin (120.8 s) and Chi/PP (117.3 s) was ~60 s lower than Chi/F127, Chi/20%Ca and Chi/Thick (p < 0.05). Chitin and Chi/PP had a significantly lower bleeding time than FloSeal (174.2 s) (p < 0.05), but not Surgicel (172.7 s). Gauze (400 s) had a significantly higher bleeding time compared to all other groups (p < 0.05). There were no significant differences in the total blood loss between the groups. Histopathological examination of brains found no adverse inflammatory reaction to any of the haemostatic compounds.ConclusionChi/PP had superior haemostatic efficacy compared to Surgicel and FloSeal, but not compared to non-modified beta-chitin patch. All of the haemostats were equally safe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahad Sabab
- Department of Surgery-Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Rajan Sundaresan Vediappan
- Department of Surgery-Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - John Finnie
- Discipline of Anatomy and Pathology, Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - C. John McAdam
- Department of Chemistry, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Alistair Jukes
- Department of Surgery-Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Sarah Vreugde
- Department of Surgery-Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Peter-John Wormald
- Department of Surgery-Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
- *Correspondence: Peter-John Wormald
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Bhatt N, Brier-Jones J, Trosan D, Brinkley C, Pecoraro J, Smallwood J, Crofton A, Hudson S, Kirsch W, Stapelmann K, Shannon S. Depyrogenation using Plasmas: A Novel Approach for Endotoxin Deactivation Using a Dielectric Barrier Discharge at Atmospheric Pressure. PLASMA PROCESSES AND POLYMERS (PRINT) 2021; 18:2100089. [PMID: 34899113 PMCID: PMC8654132 DOI: 10.1002/ppap.202100089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 08/28/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Developing a low-cost depyrogenation process is vital in extending medical applicability of polymers that can be used in medicine. We present an overview of the plasma-based depyrogenation literature and address the need to develop a non-thermal plasma-based depyrogenation process for delicate materials such as chitosan. We present a low-cost plasma apparatus to treat chitosan powder in hermetically sealed bags. We decouple the experiments into two; depyrogenation experiments for dried standard endotoxin on glass slides, and chitosan modifications analysis through FTIR spectroscopy. We demonstrate depyrogenation efficacy with up to a 4-log reduction in endotoxin levels and discuss minor changes observed in plasma-treated chitosan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naman Bhatt
- Department of Nuclear Engineering, North Carolina State University, North Carolina, USA
| | | | - Duncan Trosan
- Department of Nuclear Engineering, North Carolina State University, North Carolina, USA
| | - Cade Brinkley
- Department of Nuclear Engineering, North Carolina State University, North Carolina, USA
| | - Joshua Pecoraro
- Department of Nuclear Engineering, North Carolina State University, North Carolina, USA
| | - Jann Smallwood
- Neurosurgery Center for Research, Training, and Education, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, California, USA
| | - Andrew Crofton
- Karamedica, Inc., North Carolina, USA
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Ohio, USA
| | - Samuel Hudson
- Karamedica, Inc., North Carolina, USA
- Wilson College of Textiles, North Carolina State University, North Carolina, USA
| | - Wolff Kirsch
- Karamedica, Inc., North Carolina, USA
- Neurosurgery Center for Research, Training, and Education, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, California, USA
- Division of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, California, USA
| | - Katharina Stapelmann
- Department of Nuclear Engineering, North Carolina State University, North Carolina, USA
| | - Steven Shannon
- Department of Nuclear Engineering, North Carolina State University, North Carolina, USA
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Jin J, Ji Z, Xu M, Liu C, Ye X, Zhang W, Li S, Wang D, Zhang W, Chen J, Ye F, Lv Z. Microspheres of Carboxymethyl Chitosan, Sodium Alginate, and Collagen as a Hemostatic Agent in Vivo. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2018; 4:2541-2551. [DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.8b00453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jia Jin
- College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Silkworm Bioreactor and Biomedicine, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Zhixiao Ji
- College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Ming Xu
- College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Chenyu Liu
- College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Xiaoqing Ye
- College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Weiyao Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Si Li
- College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Silkworm Bioreactor and Biomedicine, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Dan Wang
- College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Silkworm Bioreactor and Biomedicine, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Wenping Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Silkworm Bioreactor and Biomedicine, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Jianqing Chen
- College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Silkworm Bioreactor and Biomedicine, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Fei Ye
- College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Zhengbing Lv
- College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Silkworm Bioreactor and Biomedicine, Hangzhou 310018, China
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Walczak K, Thiele J, Geisler D, Boening K, Wieckiewicz M. Effect of Chemical Disinfection on Chitosan Coated PMMA and PETG Surfaces-An In Vitro Study. Polymers (Basel) 2018; 10:E536. [PMID: 30966570 PMCID: PMC6415410 DOI: 10.3390/polym10050536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2018] [Revised: 05/02/2018] [Accepted: 05/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In oral sciences, chitosan application is of interest due to its antimicrobial and hemostatic activity. Chitosan coating of dentures and other intraoral devices could be beneficial for treatment of denture stomatitis or in the management of postoperative bleeding. Disinfection of dentures and prosthodontic materials is crucial before their use in patients. This study investigated the influence of chemical disinfectants on chitosan-coated surfaces. A total of 100 specimens were made: 50 of PMMA (polymethyl methacrylate), and 50 of PETG (polyethylene terephthalate glycol-modified) material and coated with 2% chitosan acetate solution. In each material, 5 groups (10 specimens each) were established and disinfected with Printosept-ID (L1), MD 520 (L2), Silosept (L3), or Dentavon (L4), or stored in distilled water (L0, control group). After disinfection, all specimens underwent abrasion tests (30,000 cycles in a tooth-brushing simulator). Areas without chitosan coating were measured by digital planimetry both before and after the disinfection/abrasion procedure and a damage-score was calculated. Regarding chitosan coating, the statistical analysis showed a significant influence of the disinfectants tested and significant differences between disinfectants (p < 0.05). Chitosan coating was most stable on PMMA and PETG after disinfection with MD 520 (L2). Otherwise, active oxygen containing disinfectants (L3, L4) led to the greatest alterations in the chitosan coating.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Walczak
- Department of Prosthetic Dentistry, Faculty of Medicine Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden, Fetscherstr. 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany.
| | - Jessica Thiele
- Department of Prosthetic Dentistry, Faculty of Medicine Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden, Fetscherstr. 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany.
| | - Daniel Geisler
- Division of Psychological and Social Medicine and Developmental Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden, Fetscherstr. 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany.
| | - Klaus Boening
- Department of Prosthetic Dentistry, Faculty of Medicine Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden, Fetscherstr. 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany.
| | - Mieszko Wieckiewicz
- Department of Experimental Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry, Wroclaw Medical University, 26 Krakowska st., 50-425 Wroclaw, Poland.
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Liu L, Wen H, Rao Z, Zhu C, Liu M, Min L, Fan L, Tao S. Preparation and characterization of chitosan – collagen peptide / oxidized konjac glucomannan hydrogel. Int J Biol Macromol 2018; 108:376-382. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.11.128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2017] [Revised: 09/23/2017] [Accepted: 11/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Huang Y, Feng L, Zhang Y, He L, Wang C, Xu J, Wu J, Kirk TB, Guo R, Xue W. Hemostasis mechanism and applications of N-alkylated chitosan sponge. POLYM ADVAN TECHNOL 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/pat.4003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuchen Huang
- Key Laboratory of Biomaterials of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes; Guangzhou 510632 China
- Department of Biomedical Engineering; Jinan University; Guangzhou 510632 China
| | - Longbao Feng
- Key Laboratory of Biomaterials of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes; Guangzhou 510632 China
- Department of Biomedical Engineering; Jinan University; Guangzhou 510632 China
| | - Yi Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Biomaterials of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes; Guangzhou 510632 China
- Department of Biomedical Engineering; Jinan University; Guangzhou 510632 China
| | - Liumin He
- Key Laboratory of Biomaterials of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes; Guangzhou 510632 China
- Department of Biomedical Engineering; Jinan University; Guangzhou 510632 China
| | - Changyong Wang
- Department of Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies; Institute of Basic Medical Sciences and Tissue Engineering Research Center, Academy of Military Medical Sciences; Beijing 100850 China
| | - Jiake Xu
- School of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine; University of Western Australia; Perth WA 6009 Australia
| | - Jianping Wu
- 3D Imaging and Bioengineering Laboratory, the Department of Mechanical Engineering; Curtin University; Perth WA Australia
| | - Thomas Brett Kirk
- 3D Imaging and Bioengineering Laboratory, the Department of Mechanical Engineering; Curtin University; Perth WA Australia
| | - Rui Guo
- Key Laboratory of Biomaterials of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes; Guangzhou 510632 China
- Department of Biomedical Engineering; Jinan University; Guangzhou 510632 China
| | - Wei Xue
- Key Laboratory of Biomaterials of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes; Guangzhou 510632 China
- Department of Biomedical Engineering; Jinan University; Guangzhou 510632 China
- Key Laboratory of Functional Protein Research of Guangdong Higher Education Institute; Guangzhou 510632 China
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Crofton AR, Hudson SM, Howard K, Pender T, Abdelgawad A, Wolski D, Kirsch WM. Formulation and characterization of a plasma sterilized, pharmaceutical grade chitosan powder. Carbohydr Polym 2016; 146:420-6. [PMID: 27112892 PMCID: PMC4850552 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2016.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2015] [Revised: 02/17/2016] [Accepted: 03/03/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Chitosan has great potential as a pharmaceutical excipient. In this study, chitosan flake was micronized using cryo-ball and cryo-jet milling and subsequently sterilized with nitrogen plasma. Micronized chitosan was characterized by laser diffraction, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), conductometric titration, viscometry, loss on drying, FTIR, and limulus amebocyte lysate (LAL) assays. Cryo-jet milling produced mean particle size of 16.05μm, 44% smaller than cryo-ball milling. Cryomilled chitosan demonstrated increased hygroscopicity, but reduced molecular weight and degree of deacetylation (DD). SEM imaging showed highly irregular shapes. FTIR showed changes consistent with reduced DD and an unexplained shift at 1100cm(-1). Plasma treated chitosan was sterile with <2.5EU/g after low-pressure plasma and <1.3EU/g after atmospheric pressure plasma treatment. Plasma treatment decreased the reduced viscosity of chitosan flake and powder, with a greater effect on powder. In conclusion, pharmaceutical grade, sterile chitosan powder was produced with cryo-jet milling and plasma sterilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew R Crofton
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, 11234 Anderson St., Medical Center A537, Loma Linda, CA 92350, United States; Neurosurgery Center for Research, Training, and Education, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, 11234 Anderson St., Medical Center A537, Loma Linda, CA 92350, United States.
| | - Samuel M Hudson
- College of Textiles, North Carolina State University, 2401 Research Dr., Raleigh, NC 27695, United States.
| | - Kristy Howard
- Neurosurgery Center for Research, Training, and Education, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, 11234 Anderson St., Medical Center A537, Loma Linda, CA 92350, United States.
| | - Tyler Pender
- Neurosurgery Center for Research, Training, and Education, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, 11234 Anderson St., Medical Center A537, Loma Linda, CA 92350, United States.
| | - Abdelrahman Abdelgawad
- College of Textiles, North Carolina State University, 2401 Research Dr., Raleigh, NC 27695, United States.
| | - Daniel Wolski
- College of Textiles, North Carolina State University, 2401 Research Dr., Raleigh, NC 27695, United States.
| | - Wolff M Kirsch
- Division of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, 11234 Anderson St., Medical Center A537, Loma Linda, CA 92350, United States; Neurosurgery Center for Research, Training, and Education, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, 11234 Anderson St., Medical Center A537, Loma Linda, CA 92350, United States.
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