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Zingales V, Esposito MR, Quagliata M, Cimetta E, Ruiz MJ. Comparative Study of Spheroids (3D) and Monolayer Cultures (2D) for the In Vitro Assessment of Cytotoxicity Induced by the Mycotoxins Sterigmatocystin, Ochratoxin A and Patulin. Foods 2024; 13:564. [PMID: 38397541 PMCID: PMC10887621 DOI: 10.3390/foods13040564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2023] [Revised: 02/08/2024] [Accepted: 02/10/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi associated with a variety of acute and chronic foodborne diseases. Current toxicology studies mainly rely on monolayer cell cultures and animal models, which are undeniably affected by several limitations. To bridge the gap between the current in vitro toxicology approach and the in vivo predictability of the data, we here investigated the cytotoxic effects induced by the mycotoxins sterigmatocystin (STE), ochratoxin A (OTA) and patulin (PAT) on different 2D and 3D cell cultures. We focused on human tumours (neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells and epithelial breast cancer MDA-MB-213 cells) and healthy cells (bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells, BM-MSC, and umbilical vein endothelial cells, HUVECs). The cytotoxicity of STE, OTA, and PAT was determined after 24, 48 and 72 h of exposure using an ATP assay in both culture models. Three-dimensional spheroids' morphology was also analysed using the MATLAB-based open source software AnaSP 1.4 version. Our results highlight how each cell line and different culture models showed specific sensitivities, reinforcing the importance of using more complex models for toxicology studies and a multiple cell line approach for an improved and more comprehensive risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Zingales
- Research Group in Alternative Methods for Determining Toxics Effects and Risk Assessment of Contaminants and Mixtures (RiskTox), 46100 Valencia, Spain;
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Valencia, Spain
- Department of Industrial Engineering (DII), University of Padua, Via Marzolo 9, 35131 Padova, Italy; (M.R.E.); (M.Q.); (E.C.)
- Fondazione Istituto di Ricerca Pediatrica Cittá Della Speranza (IRP)—Lab BIAMET, Corso Stati Uniti 4, 35127 Padova, Italy
| | - Maria Rosaria Esposito
- Department of Industrial Engineering (DII), University of Padua, Via Marzolo 9, 35131 Padova, Italy; (M.R.E.); (M.Q.); (E.C.)
- Fondazione Istituto di Ricerca Pediatrica Cittá Della Speranza (IRP)—Lab BIAMET, Corso Stati Uniti 4, 35127 Padova, Italy
| | - Martina Quagliata
- Department of Industrial Engineering (DII), University of Padua, Via Marzolo 9, 35131 Padova, Italy; (M.R.E.); (M.Q.); (E.C.)
- Fondazione Istituto di Ricerca Pediatrica Cittá Della Speranza (IRP)—Lab BIAMET, Corso Stati Uniti 4, 35127 Padova, Italy
| | - Elisa Cimetta
- Department of Industrial Engineering (DII), University of Padua, Via Marzolo 9, 35131 Padova, Italy; (M.R.E.); (M.Q.); (E.C.)
- Fondazione Istituto di Ricerca Pediatrica Cittá Della Speranza (IRP)—Lab BIAMET, Corso Stati Uniti 4, 35127 Padova, Italy
| | - María-José Ruiz
- Research Group in Alternative Methods for Determining Toxics Effects and Risk Assessment of Contaminants and Mixtures (RiskTox), 46100 Valencia, Spain;
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Valencia, Spain
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Zhang R, Chen R, Ma Y, Liang J, Ren S, Gao Z. Application of DNA Nanotweezers in biosensing: Nanoarchitectonics and advanced challenges. Biosens Bioelectron 2023; 237:115445. [PMID: 37421799 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2023.115445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2023] [Revised: 05/20/2023] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 07/10/2023]
Abstract
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a carrier of genetic information. DNA hybridization is characterized by predictability, diversity, and specificity owing to the strict complementary base-pairing assembly mode, which stimulates the use of DNA to build a variety of nanomachines, including DNA tweezers, motors, walkers, and robots. DNA nanomachines have become prevalent for signal amplification and transformation in the field of biosensing, providing a new method for constructing highly sensitive sensing analysis strategies. DNA tweezers have exhibited unique advantages in biosensing applications owing to their simple structures and fast responses. The two-state conformation of DNA tweezers, the open and closed states, enable them to open and close autonomously after stimulation, thus facilitating the quick detection of corresponding signal changes of different targets. This review discusses the recent progress in the application of DNA nanotweezers in the field of biosensing, and the trends in their development for application in the field of biosensing are summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Zhang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Risk Assessment and Control Technology for Environment and Food Safety, Tianjin Institute of Environmental and Operational Medicine, Tianjin, 300050, China; State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, Tianjin, 300457, China
| | - Ruipeng Chen
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Risk Assessment and Control Technology for Environment and Food Safety, Tianjin Institute of Environmental and Operational Medicine, Tianjin, 300050, China
| | - Yujing Ma
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Risk Assessment and Control Technology for Environment and Food Safety, Tianjin Institute of Environmental and Operational Medicine, Tianjin, 300050, China; State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, Tianjin, 300457, China
| | - Jun Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, Tianjin, 300457, China
| | - Shuyue Ren
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Risk Assessment and Control Technology for Environment and Food Safety, Tianjin Institute of Environmental and Operational Medicine, Tianjin, 300050, China.
| | - Zhixian Gao
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Risk Assessment and Control Technology for Environment and Food Safety, Tianjin Institute of Environmental and Operational Medicine, Tianjin, 300050, China.
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Alonso-Jauregui M, López de Cerain A, Azqueta A, Rodriguez-Garraus A, Gil AG, González-Peñas E, Vettorazzi A. In Vivo Genotoxicity and Toxicity Assessment of Sterigmatocystin Individually and in Mixture with Aflatoxin B1. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:491. [PMID: 37624248 PMCID: PMC10467059 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15080491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2023] [Revised: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are natural food and feed contaminants produced by several molds. The primary mode of exposure in humans and animals is through mixtures. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and sterigmatocystin (STER) are structurally related mycotoxins that share the same biosynthetic route. Few in vivo genotoxicity assays have been performed with STER. In the present genotoxicity study, Wistar rats were dosed orally with STER (20 mg/kg b.w.), AFB1 (0.25 mg/kg b.w.) or a mixture of both in an integrated micronucleus (bone marrow) and comet study (liver and kidney). STER was dosed at the highest feasible dose in corn oil. No increase in the percentage of micronuclei in bone marrow was observed at any condition. Slight DNA damage was detected in the livers of animals treated with AFB1 or the mixture (DNA strand breaks and Fpg (Formamidopyrimidine DNA glycosylase)-sensitive sites, respectively). Plasma, liver, and kidney samples were analyzed with LC-MS/MS demonstrating exposure to both mycotoxins. General toxicity parameters (organs absolute weight, biochemistry, and histopathology) were not altered either individually or in the mixture. The overall absence of individual genotoxicity did not allow us to set any type of interaction in the mixture. However, a possible toxicokinetic interaction was observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Alonso-Jauregui
- MITOX Research Group, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; (M.A.-J.); (A.L.d.C.); (A.A.); (A.R.-G.); (A.G.G.)
| | - Adela López de Cerain
- MITOX Research Group, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; (M.A.-J.); (A.L.d.C.); (A.A.); (A.R.-G.); (A.G.G.)
| | - Amaya Azqueta
- MITOX Research Group, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; (M.A.-J.); (A.L.d.C.); (A.A.); (A.R.-G.); (A.G.G.)
| | - Adriana Rodriguez-Garraus
- MITOX Research Group, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; (M.A.-J.); (A.L.d.C.); (A.A.); (A.R.-G.); (A.G.G.)
| | - Ana Gloria Gil
- MITOX Research Group, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; (M.A.-J.); (A.L.d.C.); (A.A.); (A.R.-G.); (A.G.G.)
| | - Elena González-Peñas
- MITOX Research Group, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Chemistry, School of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain;
| | - Ariane Vettorazzi
- MITOX Research Group, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Navarra, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; (M.A.-J.); (A.L.d.C.); (A.A.); (A.R.-G.); (A.G.G.)
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Role of quercetin on sterigmatocystin-induced oxidative stress-mediated toxicity. Food Chem Toxicol 2021; 156:112498. [PMID: 34380011 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2021.112498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Revised: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Oxidative stress appears to be a common trigger for many of the effects associated with the exposure to various mycotoxins, including sterigmatocystin (STE). However, studies to alleviate STE toxicity through the use of natural antioxidants are sparsely reported in literature. In the present study, the cytoprotective effect of quercetin (QUE) was tested in SH-SY5Y cells against STE-induced oxidative stress and cytotoxicity. The MTT assay revealed that STE decreased cell viability, whereas pre-treatment of cells with QUE restored it. The QUE was also found to counteract STE-induced ROS generation and decrease STE-induced up-regulation of the expression of the stress-inducible enzymes HO-1 and NOS-2. Pre-treatment with QUE also prevented STE-induced nuclear translocation of NF-κB, as measured by immunofluorescence. Finally, considering the key role played by NF-κB in the regulation of inflammation, the effect of STE on the pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-6 expression was evaluated. Our results showed the down-regulation of TNF-α and IL-6 following STE exposure, suggesting a negative immunomodulatory effect of STE. In QUE pre-treated samples, TNF-α and IL-6 were significantly further reduced, indicating the anti-inflammatory role of QUE. The results of the present study demonstrate for the first time that QUE exerts a cytoprotective role in STE-induced toxicity.
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Kövesi B, Kulcsár S, Ancsin Z, Zándoki E, Erdélyi M, Mézes M, Balogh K. Individual and Combined Effects of Aflatoxin B1 and Sterigmatocystin on Lipid Peroxidation and Glutathione Redox System of Common Carp Liver. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13020109. [PMID: 33540648 PMCID: PMC7912975 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13020109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to evaluate the short-term effects of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1 100 µg/kg feed) and sterigmatocystin (STC 1000 μg/kg feed) exposure individually and in combination (100 μg AFB1 + 1000 μg STC/kg feed) on the parameters of lipid peroxidation and glutathione redox system both in biochemical and gene expression levels in one-year-old common carp. Lipid peroxidation parameters were slightly affected, as significant differences were observed only in conjugated diene and triene concentrations. Reduced glutathione content decreased more markedly by STC than AFB1 or AFB1+STC, but glutathione peroxidase activity did not change. Expression of gpx4a, gpx4b, gss, and gsr genes was down-regulated due to STC compared to AFB1 or AFB1+STC, while an induction was found as effect of AFB1+STC in the case of gpx4a, but down-regulation for gpx4b as compared to AFB1. Expression of the glutathione biosynthesis regulatory gene, gss, was higher, but glutathione recycling enzyme encoding gene, gsr, was lower as an effect of AFB1+STC compared to AFB1. These results are supported by the changes in the expression of transcription factors encoding genes, nrf2, and keap1. The results revealed that individual effects of AFB1 and STC on different parameters are synergistic or antagonistic in multi-toxin treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Kövesi
- Department of Nutrition, Szent István University, H-2100 Gödöllő, Hungary; (B.K.); (S.K.); (Z.A.); (M.E.); (K.B.)
| | - Szabina Kulcsár
- Department of Nutrition, Szent István University, H-2100 Gödöllő, Hungary; (B.K.); (S.K.); (Z.A.); (M.E.); (K.B.)
- Mycotoxins in the Food Chain Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Kaposvár Campus, Szent István University, H-7400 Kaposvár, Hungary;
| | - Zsolt Ancsin
- Department of Nutrition, Szent István University, H-2100 Gödöllő, Hungary; (B.K.); (S.K.); (Z.A.); (M.E.); (K.B.)
| | - Erika Zándoki
- Mycotoxins in the Food Chain Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Kaposvár Campus, Szent István University, H-7400 Kaposvár, Hungary;
| | - Márta Erdélyi
- Department of Nutrition, Szent István University, H-2100 Gödöllő, Hungary; (B.K.); (S.K.); (Z.A.); (M.E.); (K.B.)
| | - Miklós Mézes
- Department of Nutrition, Szent István University, H-2100 Gödöllő, Hungary; (B.K.); (S.K.); (Z.A.); (M.E.); (K.B.)
- Mycotoxins in the Food Chain Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Kaposvár Campus, Szent István University, H-7400 Kaposvár, Hungary;
- Correspondence:
| | - Krisztián Balogh
- Department of Nutrition, Szent István University, H-2100 Gödöllő, Hungary; (B.K.); (S.K.); (Z.A.); (M.E.); (K.B.)
- Mycotoxins in the Food Chain Research Group, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Kaposvár Campus, Szent István University, H-7400 Kaposvár, Hungary;
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Zingales V, Fernández-Franzón M, Ruiz MJ. Sterigmatocystin: Occurrence, toxicity and molecular mechanisms of action – A review. Food Chem Toxicol 2020; 146:111802. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2020.111802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2020] [Revised: 10/01/2020] [Accepted: 10/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Jakšić D, Ćurtović I, Kifer D, Rašić D, Kopjar N, Micek V, Peraica M, Klarić MŠ. Single-Dose Toxicity of Individual and Combined Sterigmatocystin and 5-Methoxysterigmatocistin in Rat Lungs. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E734. [PMID: 33238460 PMCID: PMC7700161 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12110734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Sterigmatocystin (STC) and 5-methoxysterigmatocystin (5-M-STC) are mycotoxins produced by common damp indoor Aspergilli series Versicolores. Since both STC and 5-M-STC were found in the dust of indoor occupational and living areas, their occupants may be exposed to these mycotoxins, primarily by inhalation. Thus, STC and 5-M-STC were intratracheally instilled in male Wistar rats using doses (0.3 mg STC/kg of lung weight (l.w.); 3.6 mg 5-M-STC/kg l.w.; toxin combination 0.3 + 3.6 mg/kg l.w.) that corresponded to concentrations detected in the dust of damp indoor areas in order to explore cytotoxicity, vascular permeability, immunomodulation and genotoxicity. Single mycotoxins and their combinations insignificantly altered lactate-dehydrogenase activity, albumin, interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-α and chemokine macrophage inflammatory protein-1α concentrations, as measured by ELISA in bronchioalveolar lavage fluid upon 24 h of treatment. In an alkaline comet assay, both mycotoxins provoked a similar intensity of DNA damage in rat lungs, while in a neutral comet assay, only 5-M-STC evoked significant DNA damage. Hence, naturally occurring concentrations of individual STC may induce DNA damage in rat lungs, in which single DNA strand breaks prevail, while 5-M-STC was more responsible for double-strand breaks. In both versions of the comet assay treatment with STC + 5-M-STC, less DNA damage intensity occurred compared to single mycotoxin treatment, suggesting an antagonistic genotoxic action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Jakšić
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (D.J.); (I.Ć.); (D.K.)
| | - Ida Ćurtović
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (D.J.); (I.Ć.); (D.K.)
| | - Domagoj Kifer
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (D.J.); (I.Ć.); (D.K.)
| | - Dubravka Rašić
- Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (D.R.); (N.K.); (V.M.); (M.P.)
| | - Nevenka Kopjar
- Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (D.R.); (N.K.); (V.M.); (M.P.)
| | - Vedran Micek
- Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (D.R.); (N.K.); (V.M.); (M.P.)
| | - Maja Peraica
- Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (D.R.); (N.K.); (V.M.); (M.P.)
| | - Maja Šegvić Klarić
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (D.J.); (I.Ć.); (D.K.)
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Muruzabal D, Collins A, Azqueta A. The enzyme-modified comet assay: Past, present and future. Food Chem Toxicol 2020; 147:111865. [PMID: 33217526 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2020.111865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2020] [Revised: 11/08/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The enzyme-modified comet assay was developed in order to detect DNA lesions other than those detected by the standard version (single and double strand breaks and alkali-labile sites). Various lesion-specific enzymes, from the DNA repair machinery of bacteria and humans, have been combined with the comet assay, allowing detection of different oxidized and alkylated bases as well as cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers, mis-incorporated uracil and apurinic/apyrimidinic sites. The enzyme-modified comet assay has been applied in different fields - human biomonitoring, environmental toxicology, and genotoxicity testing (both in vitro and in vivo) - as well as in basic research. Up to now, twelve enzymes have been employed; here we describe the enzymes and give examples of studies in which they have been applied. The bacterial formamidopyrimidine DNA glycosylase (Fpg) and endonuclease III (EndoIII) have been extensively used while others have been used only rarely. Adding further enzymes to the comet assay toolbox could potentially increase the variety of DNA lesions that can be detected. The enzyme-modified comet assay can play a crucial role in the elucidation of the mechanism of action of both direct and indirect genotoxins, thus increasing the value of the assay in the regulatory context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damián Muruzabal
- Universidad de Navarra, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Nutrition, Irunlarrea 1, 310008, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Andrew Collins
- Department of Nutrition, Institute for Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, Sognsvannsveien 9, 0372, Oslo, Norway
| | - Amaya Azqueta
- Universidad de Navarra, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Nutrition, Irunlarrea 1, 310008, Pamplona, Spain; IdiSNA, Navarra Institute for Health Research, Pamplona, Spain.
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