Hepatitis A Virus, Hepatitis E Virus, and Rotavirus in Foods of Animal Origin Traded at the Borders of Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay

Detection Methods for Foodborne Viruses: Current State-of-Art and Future Perspectives

Foodborne viruses have been recognized as important threats to food safety and human health. Rapid and accurate detection is one of the most crucial measures for food safety control. With the development of biology, chemistry, nanoscience, and related interdisciplines, detection strategies have been devised and advanced continuously. This review mainly focuses on the progress of detection methods for foodborne viruses. The current detection methods for foodborne viruses are summarized, including traditional electron microscopy and cultural isolation, immunoassay, molecular technology, biosensors, and newly emerging CRISPR/Cas-based detection technology. Furthermore, a comparison of the detection methods was objectively discussed. This review provides a comprehensive account of foodborne virus detection methods from fundamentals to state-of-the-art and illustrates the advantages and disadvantages of the current methods and proposes the future trends and directions for foodborne virus detection. It is hoped that this review can update current knowledge and present blueprints in order to accelerate futuristic development.

Detection of adenovirus, rotavirus, and hepatitis E virus in meat cuts marketed in Uruguaiana, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

The aim of this study was to investigate the presence of adenovirus (AdV), rotavirus (RV), and hepatitis E virus (HEV) in beef, pork, and chicken meat cuts in retail trade in the city of Uruguaiana, RS, Brazil. A total of 131 meat products were collected (beef, n = 55; chicken, n = 47; pork, n = 29) from 18 commercial establishments (supermarkets, n = 7; butchers, n = 7; markets/grocery stores, n = 4). All samples were evaluated for AdV, RV, and HEV. The genomes of RV and AdV were identified in 29% (n = 38) and 5.34% (n = 7) of the samples, respectively. HEV was not identified in any of the samples. Chicken cuts had a higher frequency of AdV and RV isolates compared to beef and pork (P < 0.05). Among the categories of commercial establishments evaluated, all revealed at least one positive sample for AdV and RV; however, supermarkets showed a higher frequency of RV than others (P < 0.05). The genetic material of AdV and RV was identified simultaneously in 2.29% (n = 3) of samples from supermarkets (n = 2) and grocery stores (n = 1). This is the first report on detection of enteric viruses in meat cuts in the western region of the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, and the presence of AdV and RV in these products may indicate flaws during the process of handling these foods, especially in places where commercialization provides important public health issues.

Inactivation of Foodborne Viruses by UV Light: A Review

Viruses on some foods can be inactivated by exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light. This green technology has little impact on product quality and, thus, could be used to increase food safety. While its bactericidal effect has been studied extensively, little is known about the viricidal effect of UV on foods. The mechanism of viral inactivation by UV results mainly from an alteration of the genetic material (DNA or RNA) within the viral capsid and, to a lesser extent, by modifying major and minor viral proteins of the capsid. In this review, we examine the potential of UV treatment as a means of inactivating viruses on food processing surfaces and different foods. The most common foodborne viruses and their laboratory surrogates; further explanation on the inactivation mechanism and its efficacy in water, liquid foods, meat products, fruits, and vegetables; and the prospects for the commercial application of this technology are discussed. Lastly, we describe UV’s limitations and legislation surrounding its use. Based on our review of the literature, viral inactivation in water seems to be particularly effective. While consistent inactivation through turbid liquid food or the entire surface of irregular food matrices is more challenging, some treatments on different food matrices seem promising.

Systematic Review of Hepatitis E Virus in Brazil: A One-Health Approach of the Human-Animal-Environment Triad

Simple Summary

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an important causative agent of acute and chronic hepatitis worldwide. Originally identified in epidemics associated with flooding in Asia, it nowadays shows very distinct genetic and epidemiological patterns. While HEV genotypes (HEV-) 1 and 2 are associated with the original outbreaks (waterborne diseases), HEV-3 and HEV-4 present a zoonotic pattern (associated with consumption of meat from infected animals), HEV-5 and 6 have been found only in wild boar in Japan, and HEV-7 and 8 have been detected in camels and dromedary seldom affecting humans. Brazil, with a precarious sanitary structure and being an important world meat producer, was the focus of this study in order to identify patterns of occurrence of HEV. After reviewing scientific studies, it was identified that the only genotype found in Brazil is HEV-3 and the area where there were more reports was the South region of the country. This is the region that produces more pork. These results indicate that HEV-3 is widespread in the country and sanitary surveillance is essential in the national production of pigs, as well as the implementation of monitoring protocols in hospitals.

Abstract

Brazil is the fifth largest country in the world with diverse socioeconomic and sanitary conditions, also being the fourth largest pig producer in the world. The aim of the present systematic review was to collect and summarize all HEV published data from Brazil (from 1995 to October 2020) performed in humans, animals, and the environment, in a One Health perspective. A total of 2173 papers were retrieved from five search databases (LILACs, Mendeley, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science) resulting in 71 eligible papers after application of exclusion/inclusion criteria. Data shows that HEV genotype 3 (HEV-3) was the only retrieved genotype in humans, animals, and environment in Brazil. The South region showed the highest human seroprevalence and also the highest pig density and industry, suggesting a zoonotic link. HEV-1 and 2 were not detected in Brazil, despite the low sanitary conditions of some regions. From the present review we infer that HEV epidemiology in Brazil is similar to that of industrialized countries (only HEV-3, swine reservoirs, no waterborne transmission, no association with low sanitary conditions). Hence, we alert for the implementation of HEV surveillance systems in swine and for the consideration of HEV in the diagnostic routine of acute and chronic hepatitis in humans.

Impact of maternal nutrition in viral infections during pregnancy

Other than being a physiological process, pregnancy is a condition characterized by major adaptations of maternal endocrine and metabolic homeostasis that are necessary to accommodate the fetoplacental unit. Unfortunately, all these systemic, cellular, and molecular changes in maternal physiology also make the mother and the fetus more prone to adverse outcomes, including numerous alterations arising from viral infections. Common infections during pregnancy that have long been recognized as congenitally and perinatally transmissible to newborns include toxoplasmosis, rubella, cytomegalovirus, and herpes simplex viruses (originally coined as ToRCH infections). In addition, enterovirus, parvovirus B19, hepatitis virus, varicella-zoster virus, human immunodeficiency virus, Zika and Dengue virus, and, more recently, coronavirus infections including Middle Eastern respiratory syndrome (MERS) and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) infections (especially the novel SARS-CoV-2 responsible for the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic), constitute relevant targets for current research on maternal-fetal interactions in viral infections during pregnancy. Appropriate maternal education from preconception to the early postnatal period is crucial to promote healthy pregnancies in general and to prevent and/or reduce the impact of viral infections in particular. Specifically, an adequate lifestyle based on proper nutrition plans and feeding interventions, whenever possible, might be crucial to reduce the risk of virus-related gestational diseases and accompanying complications in later life. Here we aim to provide an overview of the emerging literature addressing the impact of nutrition in the context of potentially harmful viral infections during pregnancy.

Foodborne transmission of hepatitis A and hepatitis E viruses: A literature review

Foodborne viruses have been recognized as a growing concern to the food industry and a serious public health problem. Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is responsible for the majority of viral outbreaks of food origin worldwide, while hepatitis E virus (HEV) has also been gaining prominence as a foodborne viral agent in the last years, due to its zoonotic transmission through the consumption of uncooked or undercooked infected meat or derivatives. However, there is a lack of scientific reports that gather all the updated information about HAV and HEV as foodborne viruses. A search of all scientific articles about HAV and HEV in food until March 2020 was carried out, using the keywords "HAV", "HEV", "foodborne", "outbreak" and "detection in food". Foodborne outbreaks due to HAV have been reported since 1956, mainly in the USA, and in Europe in recent years, where the number of outbreaks has been increasing throughout time, and nowadays it has become the continent with the highest foodborne HAV outbreak report. Investigation and detection of HAV in food is more recent, and the first detections were performed in the 1990s decade, most of them carried out on seafood, first, and frozen food, later. On the other hand, HEV has been mainly looked for and detected in food derived from reservoir animals, such as meat, sausages and pate of pigs and wild boars. For this virus, only isolated cases and small outbreaks of foodborne transmission have been recorded, most of them in industrialized countries, due to HEV genotype 3 or 4. Virus detection in food matrices requires special processing of the food matrix, followed by RNA detection by molecular techniques. For HAV, a real-time PCR has been agreed as the standard method for virus detection in food; in the case of HEV, a consensus assay for its detection in food has not been reached yet. Our investigation shows that there is still little data about HAV and HEV prevalence and frequency of contamination in food, prevalent viral strains, and sources of contamination, mainly in developing countries, where there is no research and legislation in this regard. Studies on these issues are needed to get a better understanding of foodborne viruses, their maintenance and their potential to cause diseases.