Detection of Cryptosporidium spp. in free ranging animals of Tehran, Iran

Gastrointestinal parasites of cats in the Middle East (2000-2023): A literature review

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE

Gastrointestinal parasites in stray cats are of significant clinical and zoonotic importance and pose a potential threat to public health. Hence, the current review has practical implications as it aims to present the diversity and the prevalence of cat parasites in Middle Eastern countries.

METHODS

The research process was rigorous and thorough, spanning from 2000 to 2023. Data collection and analysis were conducted utilizing multiple international and national databases, including Google Scholar, Scopus, PubMed, and Irandoc. This meticulous approach ensures the reliability and validity of the findings, providing a solid foundation for further research and preventive measures.

RESULTS

A total of 159 articles were collected and comprehensively reviewed. Among these, 85 articles were from Iran, 25 from Türkiye, 20 from Iraq, 11 from Egypt, five from Qatar, three from Cyprus, three from Kuwait, and one each from the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, and Palestine. Toxocara cati was the most prevalent nematode, exhibiting the highest prevalence in Iran, ranging from 8% to 90%, followed by Egypt, with a range of 8.23% to 58.7%. In comparison, the lowest prevalence was recorded in Qatar at 8%. Hydatigera taeniaeformis, a common cestode in the feline, showed the highest prevalence in Qatar, with a range of 73.6% to 75.8%, while the lowest was in Kuwait at 0.8%. In Iran, the prevalence ranged from 0.9% to 64.7%. Toxoplasma gondii, a cosmopolitan protozoan, showcased the highest prevalence in Lebanon at 78.1% and the lowest in the UAE at 0.8%. In Iran, the prevalence ranged between 1.2% and 90%. Additionally, noteworthy patterns regarding the distribution and potential risk factors associated with these parasites were observed. While gender variations were not significant, environmental conditions such as high humidity and absence of sunlight exposure, along with the age and behavior of cats, were among the risk factors associated with the prevalence of parasites.

CONCLUSION

The prevalence of parasites among stray cats in Iran and other Middle Eastern countries remains notably high. This emphasizes the urgent need for a series of control and preventive measures. Implementing effective anti-parasitic strategies and emphasizing the development of multiple diagnostic methods are essential.

Molecular Detection of Cryptosporidium spp. and Enterocytozoon bieneusi Infection in Wild Rodents From Six Provinces in China

Enterocytozoon (E.) bieneusi and Cryptosporidium spp. are the most important zoonotic enteric pathogens associated with diarrheal diseases in animals and humans. However, it is still not known whether E. bieneusi and Cryptosporidium spp. are carried by wild rodents in Shanxi, Guangxi, Zhejiang, Shandong, and Inner Mongolia, China. In the present study, a total of 536 feces samples were collected from Rattus (R.) norvegicus, Mus musculus, Spermophilus (S.) dauricus, and Lasiopodomys brandti in six provinces of China, and were detected by PCR amplification of the SSU rRNA gene of Cryptosporidium spp. and ITS gene of E. bieneusi from June 2017 to November 2020. Among 536 wild rodents, 62 (11.6%) and 18 (3.4%) samples were detected as E. bieneusi- and Cryptosporidium spp.-positive, respectively. Differential prevalence rates of E. bieneusi and Cryptosporidium spp. were found in different regions. E. bieneusi was more prevalent in R. norvegicus, whereas Cryptosporidium spp. was more frequently identified in S. dauricus. Sequence analysis indicated that three known Cryptosporidium species/genotypes (Cryptosporidium viatorum, Cryptosporidium felis, and Cryptosporidium sp. rat genotype II/III) and two uncertain Cryptosporidium species (Cryptosporidium sp. novel1 and Cryptosporidium sp. novel2) were present in the investigated wild rodents. Meanwhile, 5 known E. bieneusi genotypes (XJP-II, EbpC, EbpA, D, and NCF7) and 11 novel E. bieneusi genotypes (ZJR1 to ZJR7, GXM1, HLJC1, HLJC2, and SDR1) were also observed. This is the first report for existence of E. bieneusi and Cryptosporidium spp. in wild rodents in Shanxi, Guangxi, Zhejiang, and Shandong, China. The present study also demonstrated the existence of E. bieneusi and Cryptosporidium spp. in S. dauricus worldwide for the first time. This study not only provided the basic data for the distribution of E. bieneusi and Cryptosporidium genotypes/species, but also expanded the host range of the two parasites. Moreover, the zoonotic E. bieneusi and Cryptosporidium species/genotypes were identified in the present study, suggesting wild rodents are a potential source of human infections.

The global prevalence and risk factors of Cryptosporidium infection among cats during 1988-2021: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Cryptosporidiosis is an important zoonosis caused by Cryptosporidium. This disease causes a global public health problem. The cat is considered to be one of the potential hosts for transmitting Cryptosporidium to humans. In this study, a global meta-analysis for Cryptosporidium infection in cats was performed. The articles related to Cryptosporidium infection in cats were systematically searched in databases China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Wanfang data, VIP Chinese Journal Database, PubMed, and ScienceDirect. Finally, 92 articles published from 1988 to 2021, which met the criteria of systematic review and meta-analysis, were collected. During the selected period, the overall prevalence of Cryptosporidium among cats was identified to be 6.0%. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium detected by microscopy, coproantigens, and molecular biology methods were 4.2%, 8.2%, and 5.0%, respectively. Among 9 species/genotypes (C. felis, C. parvum, C. muris, Cryptosporidium rat genotype IV, C. baileyi, C. ryanae, C. hominis, Cryptosporidium sp. rat genotype III and most closely related to Cryptosporidium sp. rat genotype III), the prevalence of C. parvum (4.2%) was significantly higher than that of other species/genotypes. Among five continents, the prevalence of Cryptosporidium in Africa (30.5%) was significantly higher than in other continents. We also analyzed the effects of different geographical factors (longitude, latitude, altitude, mean temperature, precipitation, and humidity) on Cryptosporidium infection among cats. The results showed that cryptosporidiosis was common in cats all over the world. This systematic review and meta-analysis has systematically introduced the global epidemiology of Cryptosporidium in cats and correlated risk factors. Health authorities, doctors, veterinarians and cat owners' awareness of the prevalence, risk factors and complications of Cryptosporidium are important for the development of effective prevention strategies for cryptosporidiosis.

Advances in molecular epidemiology of cryptosporidiosis in dogs and cats

The use of molecular tools has led to the identification of several zoonotic Cryptosporidium spp. in dogs and cats. Among them, Cryptosporidium canis and Cryptosporidium felis are dominant species causing canine and feline cryptosporidiosis, respectively. Some Cryptosporidium parvum infections have also been identified in both groups of animals. The identification of C. canis, C. felis and C. parvum in both pets and owners suggests the possible occurrence of zoonotic transmission of Cryptosporidium spp. between humans and pets. However, few cases of such concurrent infections have been reported. Thus, the cross-species transmission of Cryptosporidium spp. between dogs or cats and humans has long been a controversial issue. Recently developed subtyping tools for C. canis and C. felis should be very useful in identification of zoonotic transmission of both Cryptosporidium spp. Data generated using these tools have confirmed the occurrence of zoonotic transmission of these two Cryptosporidium spp. between owners and their pets, but have also shown the potential presence of host-adapted subtypes. Extensive usage of these subtyping tools in epidemiological studies of human cryptosporidiosis is needed for improved understanding of the importance of zoonotic transmission of Cryptosporidium spp. from pets.

Cryptosporidium ratti n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Cryptosporidiidae) and genetic diversity of Cryptosporidium spp. in brown rats (Rattus norvegicus) in the Czech Republic

The diversity and biology of Cryptosporidium that is specific for rats (Rattus spp.) are not well studied. We examined the occurrence and genetic diversity of Cryptosporidium spp. in wild brown rats (Rattus norvegicus) by microscopy and polymerase chain reaction (PCR)/sequencing targeting the small subunit rDNA (SSU), actin and HSP70 genes. Out of 343 faecal samples tested, none were positive by microscopy and 55 were positive by PCR. Sequence analysis of SSU gene revealed the presence of Cryptosporidium muris (n = 4), C. andersoni (n = 3), C. ryanae (n = 1), C. occultus (n = 3), Cryptosporidium rat genotype I (n = 23), Cryptosporidium rat genotype IV (n = 16) and novel Cryptosporidium rat genotype V (n = 5). Spherical oocysts of Cryptosporidium rat genotype I obtained from naturally-infected rats, measuring 4.4-5.4 μm × 4.3-5.1 μm, were infectious to the laboratory rats, but not to the BALB/c mice (Mus musculus) nor Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus). The prepatent period was 3 days post infection and the patent period was longer than 30 days. Naturally- and experimentally-infected rats showed no clinical signs of disease. Percentage of nucleotide similarities at the SSU, actin, HSP70 loci between C. ratti n. sp. and the rat derived C. occultus and Cryptosporidium rat genotype II, III, IV, and V ranged from 91.0 to 98.1%. These genetic variations were similar or greater than that observed between closely related species, i.e. C. parvum and C. erinacei (93.2-99.5%). Our morphological, genetic and biological data support the establishment of Cryptosporidium rat genotype I as a new species, Cryptosporidium ratti n. sp.

Cryptosporidium animal species in Iran: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Cryptosporidiosis is an acute and short-term infection which can lead to severe diarrhea (intestinal cryptosporidiosis) associated with a persistent cough in the host with immune system defect. This systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted to estimate the prevalence of animal Cryptosporidium species and the corresponding epidemiological aspects in Iran.

METHODS

In this study, all original research articles relating to the animal cryptosporidiosis in Iran were collected from reliable databases using keywords. A meta-analysis was conducted separately for each subgroup, and heterogeneity among the studies was performed using the Q and I2 tests. Furthermore, it should be noticed that the significance level in the statistical analysis with the Comprehensive Meta-analysis software was considered to be less than 0.05. Finally, meta-analysis results were shown in forest plot with a 95% CI.

RESULTS

In total, 4795 studies were included in the initial screening. Duplicated or non-original studies and the ones which did not meet our considered criteria were excluded from the list. Out of the 100 articles included in our first list for the meta-analysis, 40, 16, 13, 10, 9, 7, and 5 were done on cattle and calves, birds, dogs, sheep, rodents, camels, and horses, respectively. The prevalence rate of cryptosporidiosis among the birds, horses, rodents, camels, dogs, cattle, and sheep in Iran was estimated to be 7.5%, 19.5%, 20.8%, 8.4%, 4.9%, 14.4%, and 9.1%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The different Cryptosporidium species have been found in different regions of Iran. Geographical region, climate, and domestic animals are considered as factors responsible for animal cryptosporidiosis prevalence in the area. Moreover, this parasite is zoonotic which causes disease in animals as well as humans which can result in economic loss.

Molecular genotypes analysis of Cryptosporidium and Hymenolepis in rats on Lombok Island, Indonesia

Background and Aim: Cryptosporidium parvum and Hymenolepis nana are intestinal parasites that are commonly found in the unclean environment. Their presence in rats promotes the transmission of the cryptosporidiosis and hymenolepiasis to humans or animals nearby. This study aimed to determine the molecular characteristics of C. parvum and H. nana and their distribution in rats on Lombok Island. Materials and Methods: C. parvum and H. nana were investigated in 50 rats from Lombok Island. The molecular-parasitological technique used was polymerase chain reaction and sequencing method. Results: From 50 samples of rats' stool from 10 locations on Lombok Island, 8% (4/50) of C. parvum was detected molecularly with an 18S rRNA gene and 2% (1/50) of H. nana with COX 1 gene. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that C. parvum carrying rats on Lombok Island have a genetic relationship with C. parvum with Obi7 isolates, Japan and H. nana has a genetic relationship with Rodentolepis nana identified with Hn-VT isolates, India. Conclusion: The highest incidence of parasites was found in rats that were caught in the urban areas of Lombok Island, West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia. Immediately, public health programs in these types of contaminated areas should receive priority attention to prevent further transmission of the parasites from animals to human beings.

Free-ranging avifauna as a source of generalist parasites for captive birds in zoological settings: An overview of parasite records and potential for cross-transmission

Captive birds in zoological settings often harbor parasites, but little information is available about the potential for free-ranging avifauna to act as a source of infection. This review summarizes the gastrointestinal parasites found in zoo birds globally and in seven common free-ranging avian species [mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), Eurasian blackbird (Turdus merula), common starling (Sturnus vulgaris), Eurasian jackdaw (Corvus monedula), house sparrow (Passer domesticus), European robin (Erithacus rubecula), and rock dove (Columba livia)] to identify the overlap and discuss the potential for cross-species transmission. Over 70 references were assessed, and papers spanned over 90 years from 1925 to 2019. A total of 60 studies from 1987 to 2019 met the eligibility criteria. All examined free-ranging avifauna harbored parasite species that were also reported in zoo birds, except for the European jackdaw. Parasites reported in captive and free-ranging birds include nematodes (Capillaria caudinflata, Dispharynx nasuta, Ornithostrongylus quadriradiatus, Strongyloides avium, Syngamus trachea, and Tetrameres fissispina), cestodes (Dicranotaenia coronula, Diorchis stefanskii, Fimbriaria fasciolaris, and Raillietina cesticillus, Sobolevicanthus gracilis), trematode (Echinostoma revolutum), and protozoa (Cryptosporidium baileyi). Although no study effectively proved cross-transmission either experimentally or by genetic analysis, these parasites demonstrate low host specificity and a high potential for parasite sharing. There is potential for parasite sharing whenever determinants such as host specificity, life cycle, and husbandry are favorable. More research should be carried out to describe parasites in both captive and free-ranging birds in zoological settings and the likelihood of cross-infection. Such information would contribute to evidence-based control measures, enhancing effective husbandry and preventive medicine protocols.

Cryptosporidium spp. in Columba livia Gmelin, 1789 (Columbiformes: Columbidae) free-living pigeons from urban areas in Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

Cryptosporidium spp. are parasites with zoonotic potential that cause intestinal diseases, generally intense diarrheal, on their hosts, which tend to be immunocompromised. Large populations of pigeons in urban environments can lead to greater human exposure to Cryptosporidium spp., as this bird is considered a potential reservoir and is able to transmit several pathogens. This study aimed in determining the occurrence of Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts in feces of free-living pigeons (Columba livia) found in urban areas in the city of Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, south of Brazil. Fecal samples (n = 50) were collected from young and adult pigeons captured in different locations in the urban area and the parasitological diagnosis was performed through Ritchie's modified technique and Kinyoun's technique. Among the 50 samples, 18% (IC95% 9.7-30.8) were positive for Cryptosporidium spp. with a low number of oocysts being detected on fecal smears. Our results confirmed the occurrence of Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts in feces of free-living pigeons from the urban area of the city of Pelotas. This is the first report of Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts in feces of pigeons in south Brazil. This data has epidemiological significance because the oocysts could be from zoonotic species, which consequently shows that humans might be exposed to infection.

Prevalence and genotyping identification of Cryptosporidium in adult ruminants in central Iran

Background

Apicomplexan parasites of the genus Cryptosporidium infect a wide range of animal species as well as humans. Cryptosporidium spp. can cause life threatening diarrhea especially in young animals, children, immunocompromised patients and malnourished individuals. Asymptomatic cryptosporidial infections in animals can also occur, making these animals potential reservoirs of infection.

Methods

In the present study, a molecular survey of Cryptosporidium spp. in ruminants that were slaughtered for human consumption in Yazd Province, located in central Iran was conducted. Faeces were collected per-rectum from 484 animals including 192 cattle, 192 sheep and 100 goats. DNA was extracted from all samples and screened for Cryptosporidium by PCR amplification of the 18S rRNA gene. Positives were Sanger sequenced and further subtyped by sequence analysis of the 60 kDa glycoprotein (gp60) locus.

Results

In total, Cryptosporidium spp. were detected in 22 animals: C. andersoni and C. bovis in seven and two cattle faecal samples, respectively, C. ubiquitum in five sheep, and C. xiaoi in six sheep and two goat samples, respectively. To our knowledge, this study provides for the first time, molecular information concerning Cryptosporidium species infecting goats in Iran, and is also the first report of C. ubiquitum and C. xiaoi from ruminants in Iran.

Conclusion

The presence of potentially zoonotic species of Cryptosporidium in ruminants in this region may suggest that livestock could potentially contribute to human cryptosporidiosis, in particular among farmers and slaughterhouse workers, in the area. Further molecular studies on local human populations are required to more accurately understand the epidemiology and transmission dynamics of Cryptosporidium spp. in this region.