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Semango GP, Buza J. Review of the Current Status on Ruminant Abortigenic Pathogen Surveillance in Africa and Asia. Vet Sci 2024; 11:425. [PMID: 39330804 PMCID: PMC11435614 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci11090425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2024] [Revised: 05/14/2024] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 09/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Ruminant abortion events cause economic losses. Despite the importance of livestock production for food security and the livelihoods of millions of people in the world's poorest communities, very little is known about the scale, magnitude, or causes of these abortions in Africa and Asia. The aim of this review was to determine the current status of surveillance measures adopted for ruminant abortigenic pathogens in Africa and Asia and to explore feasible surveillance technologies. A systematic literature search was conducted using PRISMA guidelines for studies published between 1 January 1990 and 1 May 2024 that reported epidemiological surveys of abortigenic pathogens Africa and Asia. A meta-analysis was used to estimate the species-specific sero-prevalence of the abortigenic agents and the regions where they were detected. In the systematic literature search, 39 full-text manuscripts were included. The most prevalent abortigenic pathogens with sero-prevalence greater than 10% were BHV-1, Brucella, Chlamydia abortus, Neospora caninum, RVFV, and Waddlia chondrophila in cattle, BVDV in sheep, and RVFV and Toxoplasma gondii in goats in Africa. In Asia, Anaplasma, BHV-1, Bluetongue virus, Brucella, and BVDV were prevalent in cattle, whereas Mycoplasma was important in goats and sheep.
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Affiliation(s)
- George Peter Semango
- School of Life Sciences and Bioengineering, Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, Arusha P.O. Box 447, Tanzania
| | - Joram Buza
- School of Life Sciences and Bioengineering, Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, Arusha P.O. Box 447, Tanzania
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Vicentini LPP, Damiani LSA, Beltrame MAV, Santos GL, Mazuz ML, Müller RA, Lopes REN, Vitor RWA, Fux B. Seroprevalence and risk factors of Toxoplasma gondii in goats (Capra hircus) in the state of Espírito Santo, Southeast Brazil. Vet Parasitol Reg Stud Reports 2024; 51:101032. [PMID: 38772648 DOI: 10.1016/j.vprsr.2024.101032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2023] [Revised: 04/08/2024] [Accepted: 04/30/2024] [Indexed: 05/23/2024]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is described as a potential cause of abortion in goats and as a threat to public health. To estimate the prevalence of goats infected by T. gondii, in different cities in the Espírito Santo State, and to identify possible risk factors for infection a serological study was conducted. A total of 146 goat serum samples from the cities of Cariacica, Serra and Vila Velha were analyzed. The presence of IgG Class Immunoglobulins was serologically evaluated by Immunofluorescence antibody test (IFAT) and by Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). The seroprevalence of anti-T. gondii was 46.6% (68/146) in both techniques and the same samples got the same results in both techniques. Among the analyzed sera, 70.6% (48/68) exhibited high-avidity IgG antibodies, and 29.4% (20/68) exhibited low-avidity IgG antibodies, suggesting that the infection was chronic in the infected animals. Female sex, age group over two years old, water from the public supply system, storage of food and supplies in an open and unprotected place, and the presence of a domestic cat on the property were identified as risk factors for T. gondii infection in goats. The state of Espirito Santo has a high frequency of infected goats, and this is the first research on caprine toxoplasmosis seroepidemiology in that region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Letícia Pereira Pedrini Vicentini
- Unidade de Medicina Tropical, Departamento de Patologia, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Vitória, ES, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Doenças Infecciosas, Centro de Doenças Infecciosas, Universidade Federal do Espirito Santo, Vitória, ES, Brazil
| | | | - Marcus Alexandre Vaillant Beltrame
- Unidade de Medicina Tropical, Departamento de Patologia, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Vitória, ES, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Doenças Infecciosas, Centro de Doenças Infecciosas, Universidade Federal do Espirito Santo, Vitória, ES, Brazil
| | - Gabriella Lima Santos
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Saúde Coletiva da Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo - UFES, Vitória, ES, Brazil
| | - Monica Leszkowicz Mazuz
- Parasitology Division, Kimron Veterinary Institute, Israeli Veterinary Service and Animal Health, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Beit Dagan 5025000, Israel
| | - Rosângela Aparecida Müller
- Unidade de Medicina Tropical, Departamento de Patologia, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Vitória, ES, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Doenças Infecciosas, Centro de Doenças Infecciosas, Universidade Federal do Espirito Santo, Vitória, ES, Brazil
| | - Rosálida Estevam Nazar Lopes
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Wagner Almeida Vitor
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Blima Fux
- Unidade de Medicina Tropical, Departamento de Patologia, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Vitória, ES, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Doenças Infecciosas, Centro de Doenças Infecciosas, Universidade Federal do Espirito Santo, Vitória, ES, Brazil.
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Khattak I, Usman T, Swelum AA, Nasreen N, Khan A, Haider J, Muhammad J, Chen CC, Ben Said M. Toxoplasma gondii infection in small ruminants from Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan: Seroprevalence, spatial distribution and associated risk factors. Vet Parasitol Reg Stud Reports 2024; 47:100979. [PMID: 38199687 DOI: 10.1016/j.vprsr.2023.100979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2023] [Revised: 11/26/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
The primary aim of this investigation was to assess the occurrence of Toxoplasma gondii infection among sheep and goats in five districts within the southern region of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. Additionally, the study aimed to pinpoint potential factors associated with the spread of this infection. Serum samples were gathered from a total of 3505 small ruminants, comprising 1810 sheep and 1695 goats. These samples were then subjected to testing for anti-Toxoplasma antibodies using the Toxo-Latex slide Agglutination test. Concurrently, a predetermined questionnaire was employed to gather data on possible risk factors. The collected data underwent bivariate frequency analysis and multivariable logistic regression analyses. The findings revealed that 20.08% of the examined animals had positive results for anti-Toxoplasma antibodies. Notably, the prevalence of T. gondii was notably higher among sheep, with 21.8% of the sheep testing positive, as opposed to the 18% of tested goats (P = 0.007). The seroprevalence percentages were comparable across the five districts for both types of animals. For goats, the prevalence ranged from 16.8% to 20.1%, while for sheep, it ranged from 20.2% to 24%. Among the younger population (≤1 year), the seroprevalence was statistically lower at 17.7% compared to the older population (>1 year) at 23.1% (P < 0.001). Female animals demonstrated a higher prevalence (21.9%) in contrast to their male counterparts (17.8%) (P = 0.002). Animals reared for breeding and milking purposes displayed a greater seroprevalence (23.9%) compared to those intended for sale (17.7%) (P < 0.001). Furthermore, animals kept under a transhumant production system displayed the lowest prevalence (18.9%), followed by sedentary (21.7%) and nomadic (31.2%) herds (P < 0.001). The outcomes of this study highlight the importance of implementing management interventions to curtail T. gondii infection among animals within the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. Such measures hold the potential to reduce associated public health risks and enhance the profitability of farmers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irfan Khattak
- College of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
| | - Tahir Usman
- College of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
| | - Ayman A Swelum
- Department of Animal Production, College of Food and Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Nasreen Nasreen
- Department of Zoology, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Abdul Wali Khan University, Mardan 2320, Pakistan
| | - Adil Khan
- Department of Zoology, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Bacha Khan University, Charsadda, Pakistan; Department of Biology, Mount Allison University, Sackville, NB E4L1E4, Canada.
| | - Jamila Haider
- Department of Microbiology, Shaheed Benazir Women University Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
| | - Javed Muhammad
- Department of Microbiology, University of Haripur, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
| | - Chien-Chin Chen
- Department of Pathology, Ditmanson Medical Foundation Chia-Yi Christian Hospital, Chiayi 600, Taiwan; Department of Cosmetic Science, Chia Nan University of Pharmacy and Science, Tainan 717, Taiwan; Ph.D. Program in Translational Medicine, Rong Hsing Research Center for Translational Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 402, Taiwan; Department of Biotechnology and Bioindustry Sciences, College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan
| | - Mourad Ben Said
- Laboratory of Microbiology, National School of Veterinary Medicine of Sidi Thabet, University of Manouba, Manouba 2010, Tunisia; Department of Basic Sciences, Higher Institute of Biotechnology of Sidi Thabet, University of Manouba, Manouba 2010, Tunisia.
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Fatmawati M, Suwanti LT, Mufasirin M, Fong S, Valinata S, Subekti DT, Ekawasti F, Awad HAA. Serological survey of immunoglobulin G from Toxoplasma gondii infection in dairy goats in East Java, Indonesia. Vet World 2023; 16:1926-1932. [PMID: 37859950 PMCID: PMC10583878 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2023.1926-1932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Background and Aim Toxoplasma gondii infection is a significant issue of veterinary public health because it is potentially transmitted through goat milk. Therefore, the use of control measures and routine monitoring of toxoplasmosis in dairy goats is necessary. Serological analysis using antibodies can detect T. gondii infection. This study aimed to conduct an epidemiological study of T. gondii in dairy goats using antibody detection and risk factor identification. Materials and Methods This was a cross-sectional study. We performed a serological analysis of T. gondii infection in dairy goats to evaluate the prevalence of toxoplasmosis. Random sampling was performed, including 132 lactating dairy goats. Toxoplasma-modified agglutination test was used as a serological test for immunoglobulin G with a sensitivity of 98.55%, specificity of 86.21%, and accuracy of 94.9%. A structured questionnaire was used to collect risk factor data, which were analyzed using the Chi-square and Fisher's exact tests. The statistical package for the social sciences v. 21 was used for statistical analyses. Results The seroprevalence of T. gondii in Malang and Lumajang Regency was 100% and 90.7%, respectively. A significant difference in prevalence of T. gondii was observed between the two districts. Livestock management practices that significantly influenced T. gondii seroprevalence included water sources (p < 0.05; relative risk [RR] = 1.151; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.044-1.269). Farmers' characteristics that significantly influenced T. gondii seroprevalence included education (p < 0.05; RR = 1.125; 95% CI: 1.037-1.221), main occupation (p < 0.05; RR = 1.118; 95% CI: 1.035-1.207), and position in the organization of dairy goats farmers (p < 0.05; RR = 1.141; 95% CI: 1.022-1.274). Conclusion In East Java, the prevalence of T. gondii in dairy goats is high. This study provides detailed information regarding risk factors associated with T. gondii seroprevalence in dairy goats in East Java, Indonesia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mira Fatmawati
- Sains Veteriner Doctoral Program, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Airlangga University, Mulyorejo, Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia
- Laboratory of Public Health and Epidemiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Brawijaya University, Kalisongo, Malang District, Indonesia
| | - Lucia Tri Suwanti
- Division of Veterinary Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Airlangga University; Mulyorejo, Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia
- Toxoplasma Study Group, Institute of Tropical Disease, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia
| | - Mufasirin Mufasirin
- Division of Veterinary Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Airlangga University; Mulyorejo, Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia
- Toxoplasma Study Group, Institute of Tropical Disease, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia
| | - Sulinawati Fong
- Veterinary Disease Investigation Center, Bandar Lampung, Lampung, Indonesia
| | - Sisca Valinata
- Veterinary Disease Investigation Center, Bandar Lampung, Lampung, Indonesia
| | - Didik Tulus Subekti
- The Research Organization for Health, National Research and Innovation Agency, Bogor, Indonesia
| | - Fitrine Ekawasti
- The Research Organization for Health, National Research and Innovation Agency, Bogor, Indonesia
| | - Hana A. Ali Awad
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Omer Al Mukhtar University, Libya
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Tarusikirwa DF, Blacklaws B, Trotter CL. Seroprevalence and assessment of public awareness of Brucella spp., Toxoplasma gondii and Chlamydia abortus in small ruminants from selected smallholder commercial farms of Zimbabwe. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0287902. [PMID: 37384775 PMCID: PMC10310052 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0287902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 07/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Brucella spp., Toxoplasma gondii, and Chlamydia abortus have long been recognized as zoonoses and significant causes of reproductive failure in small ruminants globally. A cross-sectional study was conducted in August 2020 to determine the seroprevalences of Brucella spp., Toxoplasma gondii and Chlamydia abortus in 398 small ruminants from four districts of Zimbabwe (Chivi, Makoni, Zvimba, and Goromonzi) using Indirect-ELISAs. A structured questionnaire was used to assess the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of 103 smallholder farmers towards small ruminant abortions, Brucella spp., T. gondii and C. abortus, and to obtain a general overview of the significance of small ruminant reproductive failure(s) on their livelihoods. The overall seroprevalences were: 9.1% (95% CI: 6.4-12.3) for Brucella spp., 6.8% (95% CI: 4.5-9.7) for T. gondii and 2.0% (95% CI: 0.9-3.9) for C. abortus. Location, age, parity, and abortion history were associated with Brucella spp. seropositivity. Location was also associated with both T. gondii and C. abortus seropositivity. The questionnaire survey established that 44% of respondents had recently faced reproductive disease challenges within their flocks, with 34% correctly identifying abortion causes and only 10%, 6% and 4% having specific knowledge of Brucella spp., C. abortus and T. gondii, respectively. This study provides the first serological evidence of Brucella spp. in small ruminants since 1996 and builds the evidence on small ruminant toxoplasmosis and chlamydiosis in Zimbabwe. Evidence of these zoonoses in small ruminants and the paucity of knowledge shows the need for a coordinated One Health approach to increase public awareness of these diseases, and to establish effective surveillance and control measures. Further studies are required to establish the role these diseases play in small ruminant reproductive failure(s), to identify the Brucella spp. detected here to species/subspecies level, and to assess the socio-economic impact of reproductive failure in livestock among marginalised rural communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dey F. Tarusikirwa
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Barbara Blacklaws
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Caroline L. Trotter
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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Etougbétché JR, Hamidović A, Dossou HJ, Coan-Grosso M, Roques R, Plault N, Houéménou G, Badou S, Missihoun AA, Abdou Karim IY, Galal L, Diagne C, Dardé ML, Dobigny G, Mercier A. Molecular prevalence, genetic characterization and patterns of Toxoplasma gondii infection in domestic small mammals from Cotonou, Benin. Parasite 2022; 29:58. [PMID: 36562439 PMCID: PMC9879161 DOI: 10.1051/parasite/2022058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasmosis, one of the most prevalent parasitic infections in humans and animals, is caused by the intracellular protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii. Small mammals play a key role as intermediate reservoir hosts in the maintenance of the T. gondii life cycle. In this study, we estimated the molecular prevalence and provide genetic diversity data for T. gondii in 632 small mammals sampled in four areas of Cotonou city, Benin. Both the brain and heart of each individual were screened through T. gondii-targeting qPCR, and positive samples were then genotyped using a set of 15 T. gondii-specific microsatellites. Prevalence data were statistically analyzed in order to assess the relative impact of individual host characteristics, spatial distribution, composition of small mammal community, and urban landscape features. An overall T. gondii molecular prevalence of 15.2% was found and seven genotypes, all belonging to the Africa 1 lineage, could be retrieved from the invasive black rat Rattus rattus and the native African giant shrew Crocidura olivieri. Statistical analyses did not suggest any significant influence of the environmental parameters used in this study. Rather, depending on the local context, T. gondii prevalence appeared to be associated either with black rat, shrew, or mouse abundance or with the trapping period. Overall, our results highlight the intricate relationships between biotic and abiotic factors involved in T. gondii epidemiology and suggest that R. rattus and C. olivieri are two competent reservoirs for the Africa 1 lineage, a widespread lineage in tropical Africa and the predominant lineage in Benin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas R. Etougbétché
- Ecole Polytechnique d’Abomey-Calavi, Laboratoire de Recherche en Biologie Appliquée, Unité de Recherche sur les Invasions Biologiques, Université d’Abomey-Calavi 01 BP 2009 Cotonou Benin,Laboratoire de Génétique Moléculaire et d’Analyse des Génomes, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Université d’Abomey-Calavi 01BP 526 Cotonou Bénin,Corresponding authors: ;
| | - Azra Hamidović
- Inserm U1094, IRD U270, Univ. Limoges, CHU Limoges, EpiMaCT - Epidémiologie des maladies chroniques en zone tropicale, Institut d’Epidémiologie et de Neurologie Tropicale, Omega Health 87000 Limoges France
| | - Henri-Joël Dossou
- Ecole Polytechnique d’Abomey-Calavi, Laboratoire de Recherche en Biologie Appliquée, Unité de Recherche sur les Invasions Biologiques, Université d’Abomey-Calavi 01 BP 2009 Cotonou Benin,Institut du Cadre de Vie (ICaV), Université d’Abomey-Calavi BP 2899 Abomey-Calavi Benin
| | - Maeva Coan-Grosso
- Inserm U1094, IRD U270, Univ. Limoges, CHU Limoges, EpiMaCT - Epidémiologie des maladies chroniques en zone tropicale, Institut d’Epidémiologie et de Neurologie Tropicale, Omega Health 87000 Limoges France
| | - Roxane Roques
- Inserm U1094, IRD U270, Univ. Limoges, CHU Limoges, EpiMaCT - Epidémiologie des maladies chroniques en zone tropicale, Institut d’Epidémiologie et de Neurologie Tropicale, Omega Health 87000 Limoges France
| | - Nicolas Plault
- Inserm U1094, IRD U270, Univ. Limoges, CHU Limoges, EpiMaCT - Epidémiologie des maladies chroniques en zone tropicale, Institut d’Epidémiologie et de Neurologie Tropicale, Omega Health 87000 Limoges France
| | - Gualbert Houéménou
- Ecole Polytechnique d’Abomey-Calavi, Laboratoire de Recherche en Biologie Appliquée, Unité de Recherche sur les Invasions Biologiques, Université d’Abomey-Calavi 01 BP 2009 Cotonou Benin
| | - Sylvestre Badou
- Ecole Polytechnique d’Abomey-Calavi, Laboratoire de Recherche en Biologie Appliquée, Unité de Recherche sur les Invasions Biologiques, Université d’Abomey-Calavi 01 BP 2009 Cotonou Benin
| | - Antoine A. Missihoun
- Laboratoire de Génétique Moléculaire et d’Analyse des Génomes, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Université d’Abomey-Calavi 01BP 526 Cotonou Bénin
| | - Issaka Youssao Abdou Karim
- Ecole Polytechnique d’Abomey-Calavi, Laboratoire de Biotechnologie Animale et de Technologie des Viandes, Université d’Abomey-Calavi 01 BP 2009 Cotonou Benin
| | - Lokman Galal
- Inserm U1094, IRD U270, Univ. Limoges, CHU Limoges, EpiMaCT - Epidémiologie des maladies chroniques en zone tropicale, Institut d’Epidémiologie et de Neurologie Tropicale, Omega Health 87000 Limoges France
| | - Christophe Diagne
- Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, UMR CBGP (IRD, INRA, Cirad, Montpellier SupAgro), Montpellier Université d’Excellence 755 avenue du campus Agropolis 34988 Montferrier-sur-Lez Cedex France
| | - Marie-Laure Dardé
- Inserm U1094, IRD U270, Univ. Limoges, CHU Limoges, EpiMaCT - Epidémiologie des maladies chroniques en zone tropicale, Institut d’Epidémiologie et de Neurologie Tropicale, Omega Health 87000 Limoges France,Centre National de Référence (CNR) Toxoplasmose/Toxoplasma Biological Center (BRC), Centre Hospitalier-Universitaire Dupuytren 87000 Limoges France
| | - Gauthier Dobigny
- Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, UMR CBGP (IRD, INRA, Cirad, Montpellier SupAgro), Montpellier Université d’Excellence 755 avenue du campus Agropolis 34988 Montferrier-sur-Lez Cedex France,Unité Peste, Institut Pasteur de Madagascar BP 1274 Ambatofotsikely Avaradoha 101 Antananarivo Madagascar
| | - Aurélien Mercier
- Inserm U1094, IRD U270, Univ. Limoges, CHU Limoges, EpiMaCT - Epidémiologie des maladies chroniques en zone tropicale, Institut d’Epidémiologie et de Neurologie Tropicale, Omega Health 87000 Limoges France,Centre National de Référence (CNR) Toxoplasmose/Toxoplasma Biological Center (BRC), Centre Hospitalier-Universitaire Dupuytren 87000 Limoges France
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Ahaduzzaman M, Hasan T. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in sheep and goats from different geographical regions of the world: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Transbound Emerg Dis 2022; 69:3790-3822. [PMID: 36345796 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2022] [Revised: 09/29/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular protozoan parasite which significantly impact small ruminant productivity, international animal trade and transboundary movement of animal across the globe. The seroprevalence of T. gondii infection (toxoplasmosis) in sheep and goats is widely studied in many parts of the world and there is a lack of comprehensive information on prevalence estimates considering the global and regional perspectives. The aim of the study was to use systematic review and meta-analysis methods to estimate the global and regional pooled seroprevalence of T. gondii infection in sheep and goats, as well as factors that influence prevalence estimations. Relevant articles reporting the seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in sheep and/goats were searched in five electronic databases, including PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Embase and ProQuest. After the publications were checked to verify they fit the inclusion criteria, a total of 225 articles were included in the systematic review and meta-analysis, reflecting data from 70 countries/regions. The pooled prevalence was estimated using a random effect meta-analysis model. Overall, the seroprevalence of T. gondii infection was 33.86% (95% CI: 30.47-37.25%) in sheep and 31.78% (95% CI: 28.99-34.58%) in goats, with significant variation in prevalence estimates across geographical locations (p < .001). Substantial heterogeneity (I2 > 75%) was observed in most pooled seroprevalence estimates. The T. gondii infection in global sheep and goat population showed uptrend over the period. This information would be useful for epidemiologist, health authorities and farmers in order to plan future T. gondii survey and infection management strategies both locally and internationally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Ahaduzzaman
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chattogram, Bangladesh
| | - Tanjila Hasan
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, Chattogram Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chattogram, Bangladesh
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8
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Rodrigues AA, Reis SS, Moraes EDS, do Nascimento Araújo EMA, Zanine ADM, Nascimento TVC, Garcia JL, da Cunha IAL. A systematic literature review and meta-analysis of Toxoplasma gondii seroprevalence in goats. Acta Trop 2022; 230:106411. [PMID: 35304123 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2022.106411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2022] [Revised: 03/12/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was evaluate to seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in goats worldwide and the main risk factors associated from 2000 to 2020, through meta-analysis with 55,317 goats from 75 reports published in seven electronic databases of major global importance. A global seroprevalence detected was 27.49% (95% CI 24.15-30.95; I2 = 99%), with the lowest percentage in Asia (20.74%; 95% CI 16.45-25.39) and highest in Central America (62.15%; 95% CI 57.28-66.90) and Europe (31.53%; 95% CI 21.71-42.26). The seropositivity in Africa and South America were (29.41%; 95% CI 19.11-40.89) and (29.76%; 95% CI 25.84-33.83), respectively. The seroprevalence was associated with presence of cats (OR 2.22; 95% CI 1.30-3.82), goats older than one year (OR 1.77; 95% CI 1, 37-2.29), females (OR 1.43; 95% CI 1.23-1.65), rearing system (extensive vs. intensive) (OR 4.82; 95% CI 1.96-11, 84) and rearing system (semi-intensive vs. intensive) (OR 1.48; 95% CI 1.48-6.13). The heterogeneity was evidenced in most world regions and the risk factors may play roles in varying the seroprevalence.
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Abdul Hafeez M, Mehdi M, Aslam F, Ashraf K, Aleem MT, Khalid AR, Sattar A, Waheed SF, Alouffi A, Alharbi OO, Shabbir MAB, Chaudhry U, Almutairi MM. Molecular Characterization of Toxoplasma gondii in Cats and Its Zoonotic Potential for Public Health Significance. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11040437. [PMID: 35456112 PMCID: PMC9026455 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11040437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2022] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasmosis is a globally distributed disease of warm-blooded animals. It is caused by the opportunistic parasite Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii). One-third of the global human population is believed to be infected with T. gondii. Cats serve as final host of T. gondii and are the main source of contamination of soil and water. This study aimed to detect genotypes of T. gondii in cats. Fecal samples (n = 400) were collected from districts of South Punjab (Khanewal and Sahiwal), and were processed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) followed by sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. The obtained oligonucleotide sequences (T. gondii) were submitted to the GenBank database, and the evolutionary tree was constructed using MEGA-X software. Seven fecal samples (3.5%) from cats were positive. Five out of thirteen fecal samples (38.46%) found to be positive for T. gondii with microscopy were confirmed by PCR. After phylogenetic analysis with 3 clonal types and atypical strains, isolates of T. gondii in current study were more closely linked to a typical strain (AF249696). Besides genotyping from cats, seroprevalence from humans and ruminants is still considered to be the best and easiest way to identify the Toxoplasma. Blood samples were collected from sheep and goats (n = 2000 each), and human blood samples (n = 400) were collected from the same vicinity. Seroprevalence was determined using a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kit. In Khanewal, the blood samples of 292 goats (29.2%) and 265 sheep (26.5%), and 6 fecal samples from cats (3%) were positive. Out of 200 human blood samples, 52 were positive, with a seroprevalence of 26%. In the Sahiwal district, the blood samples from 49 humans, 235 sheep and 348 goats were positive, with seroprevalence of 24.5%, 23.5% and 34.8%, respectively. The present study revealed the current circulating genotype of T. gondii from cats in the districts Khanewal and Sahiwal and the seroprevalence of the organism in small ruminants and humans living in the same vicinity. Further genotype analyses of the organism from ruminants and humans are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mian Abdul Hafeez
- Department of Parasitology, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore 54000, Pakistan; (M.M.); (K.A.)
- Correspondence: (M.A.H.); (M.M.A.)
| | - Muntazir Mehdi
- Department of Parasitology, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore 54000, Pakistan; (M.M.); (K.A.)
| | - Faiza Aslam
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore 54000, Pakistan; (F.A.); (S.F.W.)
| | - Kamran Ashraf
- Department of Parasitology, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore 54000, Pakistan; (M.M.); (K.A.)
| | - Muhammad Tahir Aleem
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China;
| | - Abdur Rauf Khalid
- Department of Livestock and Poultry Production, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan 60000, Pakistan;
| | - Adeel Sattar
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore 54000, Pakistan;
| | - Syeda Fakhra Waheed
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore 54000, Pakistan; (F.A.); (S.F.W.)
| | - Abdulaziz Alouffi
- King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Riyadh 12354, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Omar Obaid Alharbi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia;
| | | | - Umer Chaudhry
- Department of Veterinary Epidemiology and Public Health, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Surrey GU27XH, UK;
| | - Mashal M. Almutairi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia;
- Correspondence: (M.A.H.); (M.M.A.)
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10
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Wei XY, Gong QL, Zeng A, Wang W, Wang Q, Zhang XX. Seroprevalence and risk factors of Toxoplasma gondii infection in goats in China from 2010 to 2020: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Prev Vet Med 2021; 186:105230. [PMID: 33348304 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2020.105230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2020] [Revised: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a widely distributed protozoan parasite that can infect a variety of warm-blooded animals including humans and goats. This is the first meta-analysis to assess the overall seroprevalence and potential risk factors of T. gondii infection among goats in China. Databases including the VIP Chinese Journal Databases (VIP), the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) database, WanFang, ScienceDirect, and PubMed were searched comprehensively for relevant studies published from 2010 to date. A random-effects model was used to calculate pooled seroprevalence estimates with 95 % confidence intervals (CI) and data were analyzed from 13 provinces in China. The pooled T. gondii seroprevalence in goats was estimated as 9.9 %. Goats T. gondii had the highest seroprevalence in Southwestern China (13.3 %) and the lowest in Northeastern China (7.3 %). The seroprevalence in the sub-group before 2012 (8.0 %) was lower than that in 2012-2015 (15.2 %) and 2016 or later (9.2 %). Goats aged > 12-months had a higher seroprevalence (11.7 %) than ≤ 12-months (10.7 %). The seroprevalence in female goats was 12.5 % and 12.2 % in male goats. In season subgroups, the seroprevalence was lowest in autumn (6.1 %). Naturally grazed goats had a seroprevalence of 8.1 % of infection and 7.8 % in intensively fed goats. We also evaluated the effects of geographical and climate variables on the pooled seroprevalence of T. gondii in goats in China. The results indicated that toxoplasmosis is widely distributed in goats in China. In the context of ensuring animal welfare, we suggest the continued promotion of the transition from natural grazing to intensive agriculture to strengthen disease prevention. Prevention would be better carried out in areas suitable for the survival and reproduction of T. gondii. Breeders need to regularly disinfect the feeding areas and pens or other areas of goat activity thoroughly to reduce the impact of environmental factors responses on the infection of goats to T. gondii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin-Yu Wei
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, Shandong Province, 266109, PR China; College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, Heilongjiang Province, 163319, PR China.
| | - Qing-Long Gong
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, Jilin Province, 130118, PR China.
| | - Ao Zeng
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, Heilongjiang Province, 163319, PR China.
| | - Wei Wang
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, Heilongjiang Province, 163319, PR China.
| | - Qi Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, Jilin Province, 130118, PR China.
| | - Xiao-Xuan Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, Shandong Province, 266109, PR China.
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11
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Maia MO, Maia MO, Silva ARSD, Gomes AAD, Aguiar DMD, Pacheco RDC, Costa AJD, Santos-Doni TRD. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum in sheep intended for human consumption in the Rondônia state, Western Brazilian Amazon. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2020; 74:101599. [PMID: 33260021 DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2020.101599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Revised: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to carry out a seroepidemiological study of anti-T. gondii and anti-N. caninum antibodies in serum samples from sheep intended for human consumption in the Rondônia state, in the Western Brazilian Amazon, and identify possible risk factors associated with seropositivity. The analysis of the 616 sheep serum samples revealed animal-level seroprevalence of T. gondii in the order of 52.4 % and of N. caninum of 60.6 %. Prevalence of co-infections was 33.4 %. The herd-level seroprevalence was 100 % for both the parasites. Applying of multivariate logistic regression analysis, test of the association between seroprevalence of T. gondii infection and the potential predictors showed that feed, fetal malformation, abortion, neurological problems (lambs), presence of rodents were the significant (P < 0.05) predictors. The variables presence of rodents, cats, wild animals and main activity showed statistical association (P < 0.05) with the seroprevalence of N. caninum. Due to the high prevalence of T. gondii and N. caninum found in this study, the absence of specific slaughterhouses for sheep and raw or undercooked sheep meat for human consumption we concluded that sheep can represent an important source of infection for humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maerle Oliveira Maia
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Veterinárias (PPGVET) da Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária (FAVET) da Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso (UFMT), Cuiabá, MT, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Daniel Moura de Aguiar
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Veterinárias (PPGVET) da Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária (FAVET) da Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso (UFMT), Cuiabá, MT, Brazil
| | - Richard de Campos Pacheco
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Veterinárias (PPGVET) da Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária (FAVET) da Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso (UFMT), Cuiabá, MT, Brazil
| | | | - Thaís Rabelo Dos Santos-Doni
- Instituto de Ciências Agrárias da Universidade Federal dos Vales do Jequitinhonha e Mucuri (UFVJM), Unaí, MG, Brazil.
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12
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Seroepidemiology of Toxoplasma gondii in small ruminants in Northwest Ethiopia. VETERINARY PARASITOLOGY- REGIONAL STUDIES AND REPORTS 2020; 22:100456. [PMID: 33308719 DOI: 10.1016/j.vprsr.2020.100456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2020] [Revised: 08/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
This cross-sectional study with a cluster random sampling method was undertaken from November 2018 to May 2019 to estimate the prevalence and assess the potential risk factors of T. gondii seropositivity, and to assess the association of the T. gondii seropositivity with reproductive losses in small ruminants in Northwest Ethiopia. A total of 576 blood samples from 135 small ruminant flocks were collected and assayed for T. gondii IgG antibodies using the Toxo-latex slide agglutination test. A questionnaire survey was also conducted to gather information on the potential risk factors of T. gondii seropositivity and on the status of reproductive losses in the small ruminant flocks. The study demonstrated a high flock and animal level T. gondii seroprevalence of 96.3% (95% CI: 91% - 98%) and 70.48% (95% CI: 68% - 79%), respectively. Mixed effect logistic regression analysis of the potential risk factors showed that the odds of seropositive for T. gondii was significantly higher in sheep (OR = 1.7, 95%CI: 1.19-2.46) than in goats, in adult (OR = 1.6, 95%, CI: 1.11-2.31) than in young, in the presence of cats (OR = 2, 95%CI:1.32-3.04) than in the absence of cats, in the lack of knowledge on the role of cats as a pathogen source than knowing it (OR = 1.82, 95% CI:1.21-2.77). The study also showed that the likelihoods of experiencing the abortion, neonatal death and weak birth in the previous one year in T. gondii seropositive flocks were 20.76 (95% CI: 2.2-195.1, p < 0.001), 8.90 (95% CI: 1.99-83.0, p = 0.021) and 9.33 (95% CI: 1.1-86.2, p = 0.019) times more than the seronegative flocks, respectively. In conclusion, this study revealed high flock and animal level seroprevalence of T. gondii in the small ruminant population in northwest Ethiopia, suggesting that lamb and goat might be a source of this pathogen for human infection if their infected meat is consumed undercooked or uncooked. Besides, the observed association of T. gondii seropositivity with reproductive losses may suggest the economic importance of the pathogen for the small ruminant producers. Therefore, it warrants control attention to reduce its economic and public health burden in the study areas. Further works on the economic impacts, bioassay, isolation, and genetic characterization of the pathogen are suggested.
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13
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Dubey JP, Murata FHA, Cerqueira-Cézar CK, Kwok OCH, Su C. Economic and public health importance of Toxoplasma gondii infections in sheep: 2009-2020. Vet Parasitol 2020; 286:109195. [PMID: 32979682 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2020.109195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii infections are common in humans and animals worldwide. The present review summarizes worldwide information on the prevalence of clinical and subclinical infections, epidemiology, diagnosis, control, and genetic diversity of T. gondii in sheep in the past decade. There is debate and uncertainty concerning repeat congenital infection as evidenced by finding T. gondii DNA in progeny of chronically infected sheep. However, there is no concrete evidence that T. gondii is the cause of repeated abortions in sheep. Recent data concerning pathogenesis of abortion in acutely infected sheep are reviewed. PCR-RFLP typing of T. gondii DNA derived from viable T. gondii isolates or tissues of infected sheep revealed low genetic diversity in sheep in Europe, Africa, Asia and North America but high diversity in South America. This review will be of interest to biologists, parasitologists, veterinarians, and public health workers.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P Dubey
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705-2350, USA.
| | - F H A Murata
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705-2350, USA
| | - C K Cerqueira-Cézar
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705-2350, USA
| | - O C H Kwok
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705-2350, USA
| | - C Su
- Department of Microbiology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996-0845, USA
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14
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Dubey J, Murata F, Cerqueira-Cézar C, Kwok O, Su C. WITHDRAWN: Economic and public health importance of Toxoplasma gondii infections in sheep: the last decade. Vet Parasitol X 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vpoa.2020.100028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
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15
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Dubey JP, Murata FHA, Cerqueira-Cézar CK, Kwok OCH. Public health and economic importance of Toxoplasma gondii infections in goats: The last decade. Res Vet Sci 2020; 132:292-307. [PMID: 32711218 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2020.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2020] [Revised: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii infections are common in humans and animals worldwide. Toxoplasmosis in goats continues to be of public health and economic concern. The present review summarizes worldwide information on the prevalence of clinical and subclinical infections, epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and genetic diversity of T. gondii in goats in the past decade. There is debate and uncertainty regarding excretion of T. gondii in milk and the ingestion of raw milk as sources of T. gondii infection for humans. Toxoplasmosis can cause abortion and deaths even in adult goats. PCR-RFLP typing of T. gondii DNA derived from viable T. gondii isolates has revealed genetic diversity in goats in North and South America. The significance of T. gondii isolates in domestic goats usually associated with wildlife in USA is discussed. This review will be of interest to biologists, parasitologists, veterinarians, and public health workers.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P Dubey
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705-2350, USA.
| | - F H A Murata
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705-2350, USA
| | - C K Cerqueira-Cézar
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705-2350, USA
| | - O C H Kwok
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD 20705-2350, USA
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16
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Odeniran PO, Omolabi KF, Ademola IO. A meta-analysis of Toxoplasma gondii seroprevalence, genotypes and risk factors among food animals in West African countries from public health perspectives. Prev Vet Med 2020; 176:104925. [PMID: 32062433 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2020.104925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2019] [Revised: 01/29/2020] [Accepted: 02/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii has been incriminated as an important opportunistic zoonotic protozoan parasite in food animals. A West African meta-analysis was conducted to assess the seroprevalence, genotypes and risk factors of T. gondii infection in food animals. Databases were searched electronically, considering T. gondii infection in cattle, goats, sheep, pigs and chickens. These were conducted to estimate overall pooled seroprevalence, confidence intervals at 95 % (CI) and heterogeneity using quality effects model. Qualitative data on risk factors to determine effects on human populace and possible control strategies were evaluated. Pooled seroprevalence of anti-T. gondii antibodies for food animals was 25.5 % (18.9-32.8); and for each animal namely cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and chickens were 16.3, 29.1, 18.1, 35.9 and 36.0 %, respectively. Most studied food animals were observed in Nigeria, while the highest seroprevalence was observed in examined goats from Republic of Benin, the lowest was in cattle from the same country. Substantial variability (Q = 2759.5; I2 = 98.3; Qi = 17.3; df = 48) among studies and lack of publication bias (LFK index = -0.08) in overall assessment was observed. In spite of the high seroprevalence in food animals, awareness and research activities in most endemic West African countries is low. Failure to associate the common risk factors have limited the reliable estimation of T. gondii infection. Therefore, more efforts are needed in awareness campaign, management practises, careful treatment of contaminated environment with cat faeces, among other measures to assist in the prevention of T. gondii in food animals.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kehinde Foluke Omolabi
- Molecular Bio-computation and Drug Design Laboratory, University of KwaZulu Natal, Durban, South Africa
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