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Adachi M, Yanagizono K, Okano Y, Koizumi H, Uemaetomari I, Tabuchi K. Estradiol protects hair cells from cisplatin-induced ototoxicity via Nrf2 activation. Redox Rep 2023; 28:2161224. [PMID: 36661237 PMCID: PMC9869986 DOI: 10.1080/13510002.2022.2161224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Cisplatin-induced ototoxicity is caused by reactive oxygen species. It has been recognized that estradiol (E2) regulates redox balance. However, little is known about the protective mechanisms of E2 against cisplatin-induced ototoxicity. In this study, we investigated the effect of E2 on nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)-mediated hair cell protection using the organ of Corti isolated from mice. The organ of Corti collected from C57BL/6 mice at 3-5 postnatal days was used in all experiments. The organ of Corti was exposed to 20 μM cisplatin with/without 100 nM E2 to examine the effect of E2 on cisplatin-induced hair cell loss. The mRNA expression of Nrf2 and the phase II detoxification gene after E2 and cisplatin treatment was analyzed using quantitative real-time PCR. E2 significantly reduces cisplatin-induced cochlear hair cell death. In addition, 100 nM E2 increased the mRNA expression of Nrf2 and phase II detoxification genes in the organ of Corti under cisplatin treatment. Our results suggest that E2 activates Nrf2, phase II detoxification enzymes and exerts a protective effect against cisplatin-induced ototoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masahiro Adachi
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan,Department of Otolaryngology, Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Kota Yanagizono
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan,Department of Otolaryngology, Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Yasuhito Okano
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan,Department of Otolaryngology, Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Hitoshi Koizumi
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan,Department of Otolaryngology, Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Isao Uemaetomari
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Keiji Tabuchi
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan, Keiji Tabuchi Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1, Tennodai, 305-8577, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
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2
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Wu X, Kong W, Qi X, Wang S, Chen Y, Zhao Z, Wang W, Lin X, Lai J, Yu Z, Lai G. Icariin induces apoptosis of human lung adenocarcinoma cells by activating the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. Life Sci 2019; 239:116879. [PMID: 31682849 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2019.116879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2019] [Revised: 09/07/2019] [Accepted: 09/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Lung cancer is the largest cause of morbidity and mortality among tumor diseases. Traditional first-line chemotherapeutic drugs are frequently accompanied by serious side effects when used to treat tumors, thus, novel drugs with reduced toxic effects may improve a patients' quality of life. Icariin, an extract of herba epimedii, has been demonstrated to exhibit multiple antitumor effects with low toxicity. In the present study, cell cycle analysis, apoptosis assays, DAPI staining, CCK8 assays, xenograft tumor models, mitochondrial membrane potential analysis, western blotting and reverse transcription-quantitative PCR were performed to determine the molecular mechanism underlying icariin activity in the human lung adenocarcinoma cell lines, A549 and H1975. The results showed that icariin reduced proliferation of A549 and H1975 cells in a time- and dose-dependent manner in vitro to a greater degree than the control BEAS-2B cells, and this was associated with increased apoptosis, but not with cell cycle progression. In vivo experiments showed that icariin treatment significantly decreased proliferation of H1975 cells in a xenograft mouse model. Mechanistically, icariin activated the mitochondrial pathway by inhibiting the activation of the PI3K-Akt pathway-associated kinase, Akt, resulting in the activation of members of the caspase family of proteins, and thus inducing apoptosis of A549 cells. Taken together, the results revealed that icariin has anti-cancer properties in lung cancer in vitro and in vivo without any noticeable toxic effects on normal lung epithelial cells. Icariin in combination with conventional anti-cancer agents may be an effective therapeutic strategy for treatment of lung carcinoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoli Wu
- Department of Medical Oncology, 900 Hospital of the Joint Logistics Team Support Force, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, 350025, PR China
| | - Wencui Kong
- Department of Medical Oncology, 900 Hospital of the Joint Logistics Team Support Force, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, 350025, PR China
| | - Xiaoyan Qi
- Department of Oncology, Zibo Central Hospital, Zibo, Shandong Province, 255020, PR China
| | - Shuiliang Wang
- Department of Urology, 900th Hospital of the Joint Logistics Team Support Force, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, 350025, PR China; Fujian Key Laboratory of Transplant Biology, Affiliated Dongfang Hospital, Xiamen University School of Medicine, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, 350025, PR China
| | - Ying Chen
- Department of Medical Oncology, 900 Hospital of the Joint Logistics Team Support Force, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, 350025, PR China
| | - Zhongquan Zhao
- Department of Medical Oncology, 900 Hospital of the Joint Logistics Team Support Force, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, 350025, PR China
| | - Wenwu Wang
- Department of Medical Oncology, 900 Hospital of the Joint Logistics Team Support Force, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, 350025, PR China
| | - Xiandong Lin
- Laboratory of Radiation Oncology and Radiobiology, Fujian Cancer Hospital and Fujian Medical University Cancer Hospital, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, 350014, PR China
| | - Jinhuo Lai
- Department of Oncology, Fujian Medical University Union Hospital, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, 350001, PR China
| | - Zongyang Yu
- Department of Medical Oncology, 900 Hospital of the Joint Logistics Team Support Force, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, 350025, PR China; Fujian Medical University Affiliated Dongfang Hospital, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, 350025, PR China; Xiamen University School of Medicine, Xiamen, Fujian Province, 361102, PR China; Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, 350122, PR China.
| | - Guoxiang Lai
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 900 Hospital of the Joint Logistics Team Support Force, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, 350025, PR China.
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3
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Protective effects of pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide against neurotoxic agents. Neurotoxicology 2018; 66:185-194. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2018.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2017] [Revised: 03/09/2018] [Accepted: 03/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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4
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Oliveira C, Benfeito S, Fernandes C, Cagide F, Silva T, Borges F. NO and HNO donors, nitrones, and nitroxides: Past, present, and future. Med Res Rev 2017; 38:1159-1187. [PMID: 29095519 DOI: 10.1002/med.21461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2017] [Revised: 06/26/2017] [Accepted: 06/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The biological effects attributed to nitric oxide (• NO) and nitroxyl (HNO) have been extensively studied, propelling their array of putative clinical applications beyond cardiovascular disorders toward other age-related diseases, like cancer and neurodegenerative diseases. In this context, the unique properties and reactivity of the N-O bond enabled the development of several classes of compounds with potential clinical interest, among which • NO and HNO donors, nitrones, and nitroxides are of particular importance. Although primarily studied for their application as cardioprotective agents and/or molecular probes for radical detection, continuous efforts have unveiled a wide range of pharmacological activities and, ultimately, therapeutic applications. These efforts are of particular significance for diseases in which oxidative stress plays a key pathogenic role, as shown by a growing volume of in vitro and in vivo preclinical data. Although in its early stages, these efforts may provide valuable guidelines for the development of new and effective N-O-based drugs for age-related disorders. In this report, we review recent advances in the chemistry of NO and HNO donors, nitrones, and nitroxides and discuss its pharmacological significance and potential therapeutic application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catarina Oliveira
- CIQUP/Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Sofia Benfeito
- CIQUP/Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Carlos Fernandes
- CIQUP/Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Fernando Cagide
- CIQUP/Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Tiago Silva
- CIQUP/Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Fernanda Borges
- CIQUP/Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
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5
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Videhult Pierre P, Haglöf J, Linder B, Engskog MKR, Arvidsson T, Pettersson C, Fransson A, Laurell G. Cisplatin-induced metabolome changes in serum: an experimental approach to identify markers for ototoxicity. Acta Otolaryngol 2017; 137:1024-1030. [PMID: 28537102 DOI: 10.1080/00016489.2017.1325006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ototoxicity from treatment with the anticancer drug cisplatin remains a clinical problem. A wide range of intracellular targets of cisplatin has been found in vivo. AIM To investigate cisplatin-induced change of the serum metabolite profile and its association with ototoxicity. MATERIAL AND METHODS Guinea pigs (n = 14) were treated with cisplatin (8 mg/kg b.w., i.v.) 30 min after administration of the otoprotector candidate sodium thiosulfate (group STS; n = 7) or sodium chloride (group NaCl; n = 7). Ototoxicity was evaluated by ABR (3-30 kHz) before and 4 d after drug treatment, and by assessment of hair cell loss. A blood sample was drawn before and 4 d after drug treatment and the polar metabolome in serum was analyzed using LC-MS. RESULTS Cisplatin-treatment caused significant threshold elevations and outer hair cell (OHC) loss in both groups. The ototoxicity was generally lower in group STS, but a significant difference was reached only at 30 kHz (p = .007). Cisplatin treatment altered the metabolite profile significantly and similarly in both groups. A significant inverse correlation was found between L-acetylcarnitine, N-acetylneuraminic acid, ceramide, and cysteinylserine and high frequency hearing loss in group NaCl. The implication of these correlations should be explored in targeted studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pernilla Videhult Pierre
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala University Hospital, ENT Clinic, Uppsala, Sweden
- Department of Clinical Science, Intervention, and Technology, Division of Audiology, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Jakob Haglöf
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Division of Analytical Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Birgitta Linder
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala University Hospital, ENT Clinic, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Mikael K. R. Engskog
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Division of Analytical Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Torbjörn Arvidsson
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Division of Analytical Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- Medical Product Agency, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Curt Pettersson
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Division of Analytical Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Anette Fransson
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala University Hospital, ENT Clinic, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Göran Laurell
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala University Hospital, ENT Clinic, Uppsala, Sweden
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6
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Chan JP, Brown J, Hark B, Nolan A, Servello D, Hrobuchak H, Staab TA. Loss of Sphingosine Kinase Alters Life History Traits and Locomotor Function in Caenorhabditis elegans. Front Genet 2017; 8:132. [PMID: 28983319 PMCID: PMC5613162 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2017.00132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2017] [Accepted: 09/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Sphingolipid metabolism is important to balance the abundance of bioactive lipid molecules involved in cell signaling, neuronal function, and survival. Specifically, the sphingolipid sphingosine mediates cell death signaling, whereas its phosphorylated form, sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), mediates cell survival signaling. The enzyme sphingosine kinase produces S1P, and the activity of sphingosine kinase impacts the ability of cells to survive under stress and challenges. To examine the influence of sphingolipid metabolism, particularly enzymes regulating sphingosine and S1P, in mediating aging, neuronal function and stress response, we examined life history traits, locomotor capacities and heat stress responses of young and old animals using the model organism Caenorhabditis elegans. We found that C. elegans sphk-1 mutants, which lack sphingosine kinase, had shorter lifespans, reduced brood sizes, and smaller body sizes compared to wild type animals. By analyzing a panel of young and old animals with genetic mutations in the sphingolipid signaling pathway, we showed that aged sphk-1 mutants exhibited a greater decline in neuromuscular function and locomotor behavior. In addition, aged animals lacking sphk-1 were more susceptible to death induced by acute and prolonged heat exposure. On the other hand, older animals with loss of function mutations in ceramide synthase (hyl-1), which converts sphingosine to ceramide, showed improved neuromuscular function and stress response with age. This phenotype was dependent on sphk-1. Together, our data show that loss of sphingosine kinase contributes to poor animal health span, suggesting that sphingolipid signaling may be important for healthy neuronal function and animal stress response during aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason P Chan
- Department of Biology, Juniata CollegeHuntingdon, PA, United States
| | - Jaylene Brown
- Department of Biology, Juniata CollegeHuntingdon, PA, United States
| | - Brandon Hark
- Department of Biology, Juniata CollegeHuntingdon, PA, United States
| | - Abby Nolan
- Department of Biology, Juniata CollegeHuntingdon, PA, United States
| | - Dustin Servello
- Department of Biology, Juniata CollegeHuntingdon, PA, United States
| | - Hannah Hrobuchak
- Department of Biology, Juniata CollegeHuntingdon, PA, United States
| | - Trisha A Staab
- Department of Biology, Juniata CollegeHuntingdon, PA, United States
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7
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Bruno M, Rizzo IM, Romero-Guevara R, Bernacchioni C, Cencetti F, Donati C, Bruni P. Sphingosine 1-phosphate signaling axis mediates fibroblast growth factor 2-induced proliferation and survival of murine auditory neuroblasts. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2017; 1864:814-824. [PMID: 28188805 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2017.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2016] [Revised: 01/11/2017] [Accepted: 02/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Hearing loss affects millions of people in the world. In mammals the auditory system comprises diverse cell types which are terminally differentiated and with no regenerative potential. There is a tremendous research interest aimed at identifying cell therapy based solutions or pharmacological approaches that could be applied therapeutically alongside auditory devices to prevent hair cell and neuron loss. Sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) is a pleiotropic bioactive sphingolipid that plays key role in the regulation of many physiological and pathological functions. S1P is intracellularly produced by sphingosine kinase (SK) 1 and SK2 and exerts many of its action consequently to its ligation to S1P specific receptors (S1PR), S1P1-5. In this study, murine auditory neuroblasts named US/VOT-N33 have been used as progenitors of neurons of the spiral ganglion. We demonstrated that the fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2)-induced proliferative action was dependent on SK1, SK2 as well as S1P1 and S1P2. Moreover, the pro-survival effect of FGF2 from apoptotic cell death induced by staurosporine treatment was dependent on SK but not on S1PR. Additionally, ERK1/2 and Akt signaling pathways were found to mediate the mitogenic and survival action of FGF2, respectively. Taken together, these findings demonstrate a crucial role for S1P signaling axis in the proliferation and the survival of otic vesicle neuroprogenitors, highlighting the identification of possible novel therapeutical approaches to prevent neuronal degeneration during hearing loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Bruno
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche Sperimentali e Cliniche "M. Serio", viale G B Morgagni 50, 50134 Firenze, Italy
| | - Ilaria Maria Rizzo
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche Sperimentali e Cliniche "M. Serio", viale G B Morgagni 50, 50134 Firenze, Italy
| | - Ricardo Romero-Guevara
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche Sperimentali e Cliniche "M. Serio", viale G B Morgagni 50, 50134 Firenze, Italy
| | - Caterina Bernacchioni
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche Sperimentali e Cliniche "M. Serio", viale G B Morgagni 50, 50134 Firenze, Italy
| | - Francesca Cencetti
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche Sperimentali e Cliniche "M. Serio", viale G B Morgagni 50, 50134 Firenze, Italy
| | - Chiara Donati
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche Sperimentali e Cliniche "M. Serio", viale G B Morgagni 50, 50134 Firenze, Italy.
| | - Paola Bruni
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche Sperimentali e Cliniche "M. Serio", viale G B Morgagni 50, 50134 Firenze, Italy
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8
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Recovery of endocochlear potential after severe damage to lateral wall fibrocytes following acute cochlear energy failure. Neuroreport 2016; 27:1159-66. [DOI: 10.1097/wnr.0000000000000673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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9
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Vogt D, Stark H. Therapeutic Strategies and Pharmacological Tools Influencing S1P Signaling and Metabolism. Med Res Rev 2016; 37:3-51. [PMID: 27480072 DOI: 10.1002/med.21402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2016] [Revised: 06/01/2016] [Accepted: 06/28/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
During the last two decades the study of the sphingolipid anabolic, catabolic, and signaling pathways has attracted enormous interest. Especially the introduction of fingolimod into market as first p.o. therapeutic for the treatment of multiple sclerosis has boosted this effect. Although the complex regulation of sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) and other catabolic and anabolic sphingosine-related compounds is not fully understood, the influence on different (patho)physiological states from inflammation to cytotoxicity as well as the availability of versatile pharmacological tools that represent new approaches to study these states are described. Here, we have summarized various aspects concerning the many faces of sphingolipid function modulation by different pharmacological tools up to clinical candidates. Due to the immense heterogeneity of physiological or pharmacological actions and complex cross regulations, it is difficult to predict their role in upcoming therapeutic approaches. Currently, inflammatory, immunological, and/or antitumor aspects are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominik Vogt
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Goethe University Frankfurt, Max-von-Laue-Straße 9, D-60438, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Holger Stark
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstraße 1, D-40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
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10
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Herr DR, Reolo MJY, Peh YX, Wang W, Lee CW, Rivera R, Paterson IC, Chun J. Sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor 2 (S1P2) attenuates reactive oxygen species formation and inhibits cell death: implications for otoprotective therapy. Sci Rep 2016; 6:24541. [PMID: 27080739 PMCID: PMC4832229 DOI: 10.1038/srep24541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2015] [Accepted: 03/31/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Ototoxic drugs, such as platinum-based chemotherapeutics, often lead to permanent hearing loss through apoptosis of neuroepithelial hair cells and afferent neurons of the cochlea. There is no approved therapy for preventing or reversing this process. Our previous studies identified a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), S1P2, as a potential mediator of otoprotection. We therefore sought to identify a pharmacological approach to prevent cochlear degeneration via activation of S1P2. The cochleae of S1pr2−/− knockout mice were evaluated for accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) with a nitro blue tetrazolium (NBT) assay. This showed that loss of S1P2 results in accumulation of ROS that precedes progressive cochlear degeneration as previously reported. These findings were supported by in vitro cell-based assays to evaluate cell viability, induction of apoptosis, and accumulation of ROS following activation of S1P2 in the presence of cisplatin. We show for the first time, that activation of S1P2 with a selective receptor agonist increases cell viability and reduces cisplatin-mediated cell death by reducing ROS. Cumulatively, these results suggest that S1P2 may serve as a therapeutic target for attenuating cisplatin-mediated ototoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deron R Herr
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117597.,Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Marie J Y Reolo
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117597
| | - Yee Xin Peh
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117597
| | - Wei Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117597
| | - Chang-Wook Lee
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience, Dorris Neuroscience Center, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Rich Rivera
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience, Dorris Neuroscience Center, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Ian C Paterson
- Department of Oral Biology and Biomedical Sciences and Oral Cancer Research &Coordinating Centre, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Jerold Chun
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience, Dorris Neuroscience Center, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
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