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Tzavellas NP, Tsamis KI, Katsenos AP, Davri AS, Simos YV, Nikas IP, Bellos S, Lekkas P, Kanellos FS, Konitsiotis S, Labrakakis C, Vezyraki P, Peschos D. Firing Alterations of Neurons in Alzheimer's Disease: Are They Merely a Consequence of Pathogenesis or a Pivotal Component of Disease Progression? Cells 2024; 13:434. [PMID: 38474398 DOI: 10.3390/cells13050434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2024] [Revised: 02/26/2024] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most prevalent neurodegenerative disorder, yet its underlying causes remain elusive. The conventional perspective on disease pathogenesis attributes alterations in neuronal excitability to molecular changes resulting in synaptic dysfunction. Early hyperexcitability is succeeded by a progressive cessation of electrical activity in neurons, with amyloid beta (Aβ) oligomers and tau protein hyperphosphorylation identified as the initial events leading to hyperactivity. In addition to these key proteins, voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels play a decisive role in the altered electrical properties of neurons in AD. Impaired synaptic function and reduced neuronal plasticity contribute to a vicious cycle, resulting in a reduction in the number of synapses and synaptic proteins, impacting their transportation inside the neuron. An understanding of these neurophysiological alterations, combined with abnormalities in the morphology of brain cells, emerges as a crucial avenue for new treatment investigations. This review aims to delve into the detailed exploration of electrical neuronal alterations observed in different AD models affecting single neurons and neuronal networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolaos P Tzavellas
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, 451 10 Ioannina, Greece
| | - Konstantinos I Tsamis
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, 451 10 Ioannina, Greece
- Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University Hospital of Ioannina, 455 00 Ioannina, Greece
| | - Andreas P Katsenos
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, 451 10 Ioannina, Greece
| | - Athena S Davri
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, 451 10 Ioannina, Greece
| | - Yannis V Simos
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, 451 10 Ioannina, Greece
| | - Ilias P Nikas
- Medical School, University of Cyprus, 2029 Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Stefanos Bellos
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, 451 10 Ioannina, Greece
| | - Panagiotis Lekkas
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, 451 10 Ioannina, Greece
| | - Foivos S Kanellos
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, 451 10 Ioannina, Greece
| | - Spyridon Konitsiotis
- Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University Hospital of Ioannina, 455 00 Ioannina, Greece
| | - Charalampos Labrakakis
- Department of Biological Applications and Technology, University of Ioannina, 451 10 Ioannina, Greece
| | - Patra Vezyraki
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, 451 10 Ioannina, Greece
| | - Dimitrios Peschos
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Ioannina, 451 10 Ioannina, Greece
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Gu JX, Wang J, Ma FJ, Liu MM, Chen SH, Wei Y, Xiao YF, Lv PY, Liu X, Qu JQ, Yan XX, Chen T. Rab11a in the spinal cord: an essential contributor to complete Freund's adjuvant-induced inflammatory pain in mice. Mol Brain 2023; 16:70. [PMID: 37770900 PMCID: PMC10537208 DOI: 10.1186/s13041-023-01057-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory pain is a commonly observed clinical symptom in a range of acute and chronic diseases. However, the mechanism of inflammatory pain is far from clear yet. Rab11a, a small molecule guanosine triphosphate enzyme, is reported to regulate orofacial inflammatory pain in our previous works. However, the mechanism of Rab11a's involvement in the regulation of inflammatory pain remains obscure. Here, we aim to elucidate the potential mechanisms through which Rab11a contributes to the development of inflammatory pain in the spinal level. It's shown that neurons, rather than glial cells, were the primary cell type expressing Rab11a in the spinal dorsal horn (SDH). After intra-plantar injection of CFA, both the number of Fos/Rab11a-immunopositive neurons and the expression of Rab11a were increased. Administration of Rab11a-shRNA into the SDH resulted in significantly analgesic effect in mice with CFA injection. Application of Rab11a-shRNA also reduced the NMDA receptor-mediated excitatory post-synaptic current (EPSC) and the spike number of neurons in lamina II of the SDH in mice with CFA injection, without affecting the presynaptic glutamate release and the postsynaptic AMPA receptor-mediated EPSC. Our results thus suggest that the enhanced expression of neuronal Rab11a may be important for the process of inflammatory pain in mice with CFA injection, which is likely mediated by Rab11a's potentiation of the competence of post-synaptic NMDAR and spiking of SDH neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Xiang Gu
- Department of Neurosurgery, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
- Department of Anatomy and K.K. Leung Brain Research Centre, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Jian Wang
- Department of Anatomy and K.K. Leung Brain Research Centre, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Fu-Juan Ma
- Department of Anatomy and K.K. Leung Brain Research Centre, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
- School of Medicine, Northwest University, Xi'an, China
| | - Miao-Miao Liu
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Si-Hai Chen
- Department of Psychiatry, Xiaogan Mental Health Center, Xiaogan, China
| | - Yi Wei
- Department of Anatomy and K.K. Leung Brain Research Centre, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
- School of Medicine, Northwest University, Xi'an, China
| | - Yi-Fan Xiao
- Department of Anatomy and K.K. Leung Brain Research Centre, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
- School of Medicine, Northwest University, Xi'an, China
| | - Pei-Yuan Lv
- Department of Anatomy and K.K. Leung Brain Research Centre, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Xin Liu
- Department of Stomatology, The 960th Hospital of People's Liberation Army, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Jian-Qiang Qu
- Department of Neurosurgery, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Xian-Xia Yan
- Department of Neurosurgery, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China.
| | - Tao Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China.
- Department of Anatomy and K.K. Leung Brain Research Centre, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China.
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Chen WB, Wang YX, Wang HG, An D, Sun D, Li P, Zhang T, Lu WG, Liu YQ. TPEN attenuates amyloid-β 25-35-induced neuronal damage with changes in the electrophysiological properties of voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels. Mol Brain 2021; 14:124. [PMID: 34384467 PMCID: PMC8359616 DOI: 10.1186/s13041-021-00837-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
To understand the role of intracellular zinc ion (Zn2+) dysregulation in mediating age-related neurodegenerative changes, particularly neurotoxicity resulting from the generation of excessive neurotoxic amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides, this study aimed to investigate whether N, N, N', N'-tetrakis (2-pyridylmethyl) ethylenediamine (TPEN), a Zn2+-specific chelator, could attenuate Aβ25-35-induced neurotoxicity and the underlying electrophysiological mechanism. We used the 3-(4, 5-dimethyl-thiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay to measure the viability of hippocampal neurons and performed single-cell confocal imaging to detect the concentration of Zn2+ in these neurons. Furthermore, we used the whole-cell patch-clamp technique to detect the evoked repetitive action potential (APs), the voltage-gated sodium and potassium (K+) channels of primary hippocampal neurons. The analysis showed that TPEN attenuated Aβ25-35-induced neuronal death, reversed the Aβ25-35-induced increase in intracellular Zn2+ concentration and the frequency of APs, inhibited the increase in the maximum current density of voltage-activated sodium channel currents induced by Aβ25-35, relieved the Aβ25-35-induced decrease in the peak amplitude of transient outward K+ currents (IA) and outward-delayed rectifier K+ currents (IDR) at different membrane potentials, and suppressed the steady-state activation and inactivation curves of IA shifted toward the hyperpolarization direction caused by Aβ25-35. These results suggest that Aβ25-35-induced neuronal damage correlated with Zn2+ dysregulation mediated the electrophysiological changes in the voltage-gated sodium and K+ channels. Moreover, Zn2+-specific chelator-TPEN attenuated Aβ25-35-induced neuronal damage by recovering the intracellular Zn2+ concentration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Bo Chen
- College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, People's Republic of China
| | - Yu-Xiang Wang
- Department of Immunology and Pathogenic Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Hebei University of Chinese Medicine, Shijiazhuang, 050200, Hebei, People's Republic of China
| | - Hong-Gang Wang
- College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, People's Republic of China
| | - Di An
- College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, People's Republic of China
| | - Dan Sun
- College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, People's Republic of China
| | - Pan Li
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Cerebral Vascular and Neurodegenerative Diseases, Tianjin Neurosurgery Institute, Department of Neurology, Tianjin Huanhu Hospital Affiliated to Nankai University, Tianjin, People's Republic of China
| | - Tao Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, People's Republic of China
| | - Wan-Ge Lu
- College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, People's Republic of China
| | - Yan-Qiang Liu
- College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, People's Republic of China.
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Acute Effects of Two Different Species of Amyloid- β on Oscillatory Activity and Synaptic Plasticity in the Commissural CA3-CA1 Circuit of the Hippocampus. Neural Plast 2021; 2020:8869526. [PMID: 33381164 PMCID: PMC7765721 DOI: 10.1155/2020/8869526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Revised: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent evidence indicates that soluble amyloid-β (Aβ) species induce imbalances in excitatory and inhibitory transmission, resulting in neural network functional impairment and cognitive deficits during early stages of Alzheimer's disease (AD). To evaluate the in vivo effects of two soluble Aβ species (Aβ25-35 and Aβ1-40) on commissural CA3-to-CA1 (cCA3-to-CA1) synaptic transmission and plasticity, and CA1 oscillatory activity, we used acute intrahippocampal microinjections in adult anaesthetized male Wistar rats. Soluble Aβ microinjection increased cCA3-to-CA1 synaptic variability without significant changes in synaptic efficiency. High-frequency CA3 stimulation was rendered inefficient by soluble Aβ intrahippocampal injection to induce long-term potentiation and to enhance synaptic variability in CA1, contrasting with what was observed in vehicle-injected subjects. Although soluble Aβ microinjection significantly increased the relative power of γ-band and ripple oscillations and significantly shifted the average vector of θ-to-γ phase-amplitude coupling (PAC) in CA1, it prevented θ-to-γ PAC shift induced by high-frequency CA3 stimulation, opposite to what was observed in vehicle-injected animals. These results provide further evidence that soluble Aβ species induce synaptic dysfunction causing abnormal synaptic variability, impaired long-term plasticity, and deviant oscillatory activity, leading to network activity derailment in the hippocampus.
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Sousa JCE, Santana ACF, MagalhÃes GJP. Resveratrol in Alzheimer's disease: a review of pathophysiology and therapeutic potential. ARQUIVOS DE NEURO-PSIQUIATRIA 2020; 78:501-511. [PMID: 32520230 DOI: 10.1590/0004-282x20200010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2019] [Accepted: 01/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive and irreversible loss of cognitive function. The presence of senile plaques is one of the pathological markers of the disease and is associated with the onset of neuroinflammatory mechanisms. The exact pathophysiology of AD has not been completely understood, and there are no curative therapies yet. Resveratrol (3,5,4'-trihydroxy-trans-stilbene) is a polyphenol that is noted for its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. OBJECTIVE To review the role of resveratrol in the pathophysiological aspects of AD. METHODS This study carried out a literature review using PubMed/Medline, Virtual Health Library (VHL), Web of Sciences, SCOPUS and the Cochrane Library databases. Original research articles, describing both in vitro and in vivo experiments, published between 2008 and 2018, were included. RESULTS We identified 667 articles, of which 619 were excluded because they were repeated or did not follow the inclusion criteria. The present study includes the remaining 48 articles. DISCUSSION Resveratrol demonstrates beneficial and protective effects in AD models and seems to provide a promising therapeutic alternative. CONCLUSION Although resveratrol appears to mitigate some pathophysiological aspects of AD, further studies are needed to prove the safety and efficacy of this compound in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Júlia Canto E Sousa
- Universidade Salvador, Escola de Ciências da Saúde, Departamento de Nutrição, Salvador BA, Brazil
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Ashrafizadeh M, Zarrabi A, Najafi M, Samarghandian S, Mohammadinejad R, Ahn KS. Resveratrol targeting tau proteins, amyloid-beta aggregations, and their adverse effects: An updated review. Phytother Res 2020; 34:2867-2888. [PMID: 32491273 DOI: 10.1002/ptr.6732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Revised: 04/18/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Resveratrol (Res) is a non-flavonoid compound with pharmacological actions such as antioxidant, antiinflammatory, hepatoprotective, antidiabetes, and antitumor. This plant-derived chemical has a long history usage in treatment of diseases. The excellent therapeutic impacts of Res and its capability in penetration into blood-brain barrier have made it an appropriate candidate in the treatment of neurological disorders (NDs). Tau protein aggregations and amyloid-beta (Aβ) deposits are responsible for the induction of NDs. A variety of studies have elucidated the role of these aggregations in NDs and the underlying molecular pathways in their development. In the present review, based on the recently published articles, we describe that how Res administration could inhibit amyloidogenic pathway and stimulate processes such as autophagy to degrade Aβ aggregations. Besides, we demonstrate that Res supplementation is beneficial in dephosphorylation of tau proteins and suppressing their aggregations. Then, we discuss molecular pathways and relate them to the treatment of NDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milad Ashrafizadeh
- Department of Basic Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Ali Zarrabi
- Sabanci University Nanotechnology Research and Application Center (SUNUM), Tuzla, Turkey
| | - Masoud Najafi
- Radiology and Nuclear Medicine Department, School of Paramedical Sciences, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Saeed Samarghandian
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Neyshabur University of Medical Sciences, Neyshabur, Iran
| | - Reza Mohammadinejad
- Neuroscience Research Center, Institute of Neuropharmacology, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Kwang Seok Ahn
- College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Gao Y, Li J, Li J, Hu C, Zhang L, Yan J, Li L, Zhang L. Tetrahydroxy stilbene glycoside alleviated inflammatory damage by mitophagy via AMPK related PINK1/Parkin signaling pathway. Biochem Pharmacol 2020; 177:113997. [PMID: 32353422 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2020.113997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 04/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an irreversible neurodegenerative brain disorder with complex pathogenesis. The fibrillar peptide β-amyloid (Aβ) has a chief function in the pathogenesis of AD. Emerging evidence has indicated that there is a tight relationship between inflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction and Aβ formation. 2,3,5,4'-Tetrahydroxystilbene-2-O-β-D-glucoside (TSG) is one of the main active components extracted from Polygonum multiflorum. Recent research corroborated the beneficial roles of TSG in alleviating the learning and memory of AD models. Unfortunately, the underlying mechanism of TSG remains poorly elucidated. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of TSG on LPS/ATP and Aβ25-35-induced inflammation in microglia and neurons and its underlying molecular mechanisms. Our results found that treatment with TSG significantly attenuated the secretion of inflammatory cytokines, reduced NLRP3 inflammasome, and regulated mitophagy. TSG efficiently alleviated LPS-induced inflammatory response by inhibiting the NLRP3 signaling pathway both in microglia and neuron. Meanwhile, TSG promoted autophagy involved in the AMPK/PINK1/Parkin signaling pathway, which may contribute to the protective activity. Additional mechanistic investigations to evaluate the dependence of the neuroprotective role of TSG on PINK1 revealed that a lack of PINK1 inhibited autophagy, especially mitophagy in microglia. Importantly, knockdown of PINK1 or Parkin by siRNA or CRISPR/Cas9 system abolished the protective effects of TSG. In conclusion, these phenomena suggested that TSG prevented LPS/ATP and Aβ-induced inflammation via AMPK/PINK1/Parkin-dependent enhancement of mitophagy. We found the neuroprotective effect of TSG, suggesting it may be beneficial for AD prevention and treatment by suppressing the activation of inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Gao
- Department of Pharmacy, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Beijing Engineering Research Center for Nervous System Drugs, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Key Laboratory for Neurodegenerative Diseases of Ministry of Education, Beijing 100053, China; State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Functions of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica and Neuroscience Center, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Juntong Li
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510405, China
| | - Jianping Li
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Functions of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica and Neuroscience Center, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Chaoying Hu
- Department of Pharmacy, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Beijing Engineering Research Center for Nervous System Drugs, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Key Laboratory for Neurodegenerative Diseases of Ministry of Education, Beijing 100053, China
| | - Li Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Beijing Engineering Research Center for Nervous System Drugs, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Key Laboratory for Neurodegenerative Diseases of Ministry of Education, Beijing 100053, China
| | - Jiaqing Yan
- Department of Pharmacy, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100021, China
| | - Lin Li
- Department of Pharmacy, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Beijing Engineering Research Center for Nervous System Drugs, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Key Laboratory for Neurodegenerative Diseases of Ministry of Education, Beijing 100053, China
| | - Lan Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Beijing Engineering Research Center for Nervous System Drugs, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Key Laboratory for Neurodegenerative Diseases of Ministry of Education, Beijing 100053, China.
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Ma X, Sun Z, Han X, Li S, Jiang X, Chen S, Zhang J, Lu H. Neuroprotective Effect of Resveratrol via Activation of Sirt1 Signaling in a Rat Model of Combined Diabetes and Alzheimer's Disease. Front Neurosci 2020; 13:1400. [PMID: 32038127 PMCID: PMC6985467 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.01400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2019] [Accepted: 12/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and diabetes mellitus (DM) often coexist in patients because having one of these conditions increases risk for the other. These two diseases share several pathophysiological mechanisms, such as specific inflammatory signaling pathways, oxidative stress, and cell apoptosis. It is still unclear exactly which mechanisms associated with DM are responsible for increased AD risk. Studies have found that even transient elevation of brain Aβ levels can allow T2DM to slightly disrupt the neural milieu in a way that encourages pathologies associated with the onset of memory deficits and AD. A recent study argues that a potential common pathogenetic mechanism underlying both DM and AD is evidenced by the cooccurrence of amyloid brain legions and deposits containing both tau and Aβ in pancreatic β cells. Given these links, an investigation detailing disease mechanisms as well as treatment options for patients with cooccurring DM and AD is urgently needed. The biological effects of resveratrol relevant to DM and AD treatment include its abilities to modulate oxidative stress and reduce inflammation. A rat model of DM and concomitant AD was created for this study using intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin and hippocampal injection of Aβ1–40 to characterize resveratrol’s potential protective action. Results Resveratrol significantly increased the Sirt1 expression, inhibited the memory impairment, the increased acetylcholinesterase, malondialdehyde, interleukin-1β and interleukin 6 levels, and the decreased levels of choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione in this rat model of diabetes and concomitant AD. The Sirt 1 inhibitor EX527 partially reversed the effects of resveratrol. Conclusion This study suggests that resveratrol may have a neuroprotective action through activation of Sirt1 signaling in diabetes and AD with concurrent onset.
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Affiliation(s)
- XingRong Ma
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - ZhiKun Sun
- Department of Neurology, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Xiao Han
- Department of Neurology, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Shujian Li
- Department of Neurology, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Xiaofeng Jiang
- Department of Neurology, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Shuai Chen
- Department of Neurology, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Jiewen Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Hong Lu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
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Yao LH, Wang J, Liu C, Wei S, Li G, Wang S, Meng W, Liu ZB, Huang LP. Cordycepin protects against β-amyloid and ibotenic acid-induced hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neuronal hyperactivity. THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY & PHARMACOLOGY : OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE KOREAN PHYSIOLOGICAL SOCIETY AND THE KOREAN SOCIETY OF PHARMACOLOGY 2019; 23:483-491. [PMID: 31680770 PMCID: PMC6819905 DOI: 10.4196/kjpp.2019.23.6.483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2019] [Revised: 07/29/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Cordycepin exerts neuroprotective effects against excitotoxic neuronal death. However, its direct electrophysiological evidence in Alzheimer's disease (AD) remains unclear. This study aimed to explore the electrophysiological mechanisms underlying the protective effect of cordycepin against the excitotoxic neuronal insult in AD using whole-cell patch clamp techniques. β-Amyloid (Aβ) and ibotenic acid (IBO)-induced injury model in cultured hippocampal neurons was used for the purpose. The results revealed that cordycepin significantly delayed Aβ + IBO-induced excessive neuronal membrane depolarization. It increased the onset time/latency, extended the duration, and reduced the slope in both slow and rapid depolarization. Additionally, cordycepin reversed the neuronal hyperactivity in Aβ + IBO-induced evoked action potential (AP) firing, including increase in repetitive firing frequency, shortening of evoked AP latency, decrease in the amplitude of fast afterhyperpolarization, and increase in membrane depolarization. Further, the suppressive effect of cordycepin against Aβ + IBO-induced excessive neuronal membrane depolarization and neuronal hyperactivity was blocked by DPCPX (8-cyclopentyl-1,3-dipropylxanthine, an adenosine A1 receptor-specific blocker). Collectively, these results revealed the suppressive effect of cordycepin against the Aβ + IBO-induced excitotoxic neuronal insult by attenuating excessive neuronal activity and membrane depolarization, and the mechanism through the activation of A1R is strongly recommended, thus highlighting the therapeutic potential of cordycepin in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Hua Yao
- School of Life Science, Jiangxi Science & Technology Normal University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330013, PR China.,School of Sport Science, Jiangxi Science & Technology Normal University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330013, PR China
| | - Jinxiu Wang
- School of Life Science, Jiangxi Science & Technology Normal University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330013, PR China
| | - Chao Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330004, PR China
| | - Shanshan Wei
- School of Life Science, Jiangxi Science & Technology Normal University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330013, PR China
| | - Guoyin Li
- School of Sport Science, Jiangxi Science & Technology Normal University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330013, PR China
| | - Songhua Wang
- School of Life Science, Jiangxi Science & Technology Normal University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330013, PR China
| | - Wei Meng
- School of Life Science, Jiangxi Science & Technology Normal University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330013, PR China
| | - Zhi-Bin Liu
- School of Sport Science, Jiangxi Science & Technology Normal University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330013, PR China
| | - Li-Ping Huang
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330004, PR China
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10
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Yan W, Zhang M, Yu Y, Yi X, Guo T, Hu H, Sun Q, Chen M, Xiong H, Chen L. Blockade of voltage-gated potassium channels ameliorates diabetes-associated cognitive dysfunction in vivo and in vitro. Exp Neurol 2019; 320:112988. [PMID: 31254519 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2019.112988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2018] [Revised: 03/29/2019] [Accepted: 06/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The voltage-gated potassium (Kv) channel blockers tetraethylammonium (TEA) and 4-aminopyridine (4-AP) have shown beneficial effects on some neurological disorders. But their involvements in diabetes-associated cognitive dysfunction are still unknown. The present study aims to investigate whether the blockade of Kv channels by TEA and 4-AP alleviate cognitive decline in diabetes. In vivo, the effects of TEA and 4-AP (5 mg/kg body weight per day, 1 mg/kg body weight per day intraperitoneal injected for 4 weeks, respectively) were investigated in streptozotocin-induced C57BL/6 diabetic mice. In vitro study, we investigated the effects of TEA and 4-AP on the high glucose (HG) -stimulated primary cortical neurons. The results showed that TEA and 4-AP ameliorated the cognitive decline of diabetic mice in the Morris water maze test, improved the ultrastructure of pancreatic β cells, hippocampal neurons and synapses, decreased oxidative stress, modulated apoptosis-related proteins, and activated phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/ Protein kinase-B (PKB or Akt) signaling pathway. In the HG-stimulated primary cultured cortical neurons, TEA and 4-AP increased the cell viability, decreased oxidative stress; prevented apoptosis and activated PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. Additionally, the PI3K inhibitor LY294002 partially abolished the effects of TEA and 4-AP. These findings indicate that the blockade of Kv channels by TEA and 4-AP ameliorates the diabetes-associated cognitive dysfunction via PI3K/Akt pathway, suggesting that targeting Kv channels could be a promising strategy for the treatments of cognitive impairments in diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenhui Yan
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Meng Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Ye Yu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xinyao Yi
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Tingli Guo
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Hao Hu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Qiang Sun
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Mingxia Chen
- Electron Microscopy Room, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Huangui Xiong
- Neurophysiology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Neuroscience, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68198-5880, USA.
| | - Lina Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an 710061, Shaanxi, China; Key Laboratory of Environment and Genes Related to Diseases (Xi'an Jiaotong University), Ministry of Education, Xi'an 710061, Shaanxi, China.
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11
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Genistein Inhibits Aβ 25-35-Induced Neuronal Death with Changes in the Electrophysiological Properties of Voltage-Gated Sodium and Potassium Channels. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2019; 39:809-822. [PMID: 31037516 DOI: 10.1007/s10571-019-00680-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2018] [Accepted: 04/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
We established a model of Alzheimer's disease in vitro by exposing primary hippocampal neurons of neonatal Wistar rats to the β-Amyloid peptide fragment 25-35, Aβ25-35. We then observed the effects of genistein, a type of soybean isoflavone, on Aβ25-35-incubated hippocampal neuron viability, and the electrophysiological properties of voltage-gated sodium channels (NaV) and potassium channels (KV) in the hippocampal neurons. Aβ25-35 exposure reduced the viability of hippocampal neurons, decreased the peak amplitude of voltage-activated sodium channel currents (INa), and significantly reduced INa at different membrane potentials. Moreover, Aβ25-35 shifted the activation curve toward depolarization, shifted the inactivation curve toward hyperpolarization, and increased the time constant of recovery from inactivation. Aβ25-35 exposure significantly shifted the inactivation curve of transient outward K+ currents (IA) toward hyperpolarization and increased its time constant of recovery from inactivation. In addition, Aβ25-35 significantly decreased the peak density of outward-delayed rectifier potassium channel currents (IDR) and significantly reduced IDR value at different membrane potentials. We found that genistein partially reversed the decrease in hippocampal neuron viability, and the alterations in electrophysiological properties of NaV and KV induced by Aβ25-35. Our results suggest that genistein could inhibit Aβ25-35-induced neuronal damage with changes in the electrophysiological properties of NaV and KV.
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12
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Xia Q, Wang H, Yin H, Yang Z. Excessive corticosterone induces excitotoxicity of hippocampal neurons and sensitivity of potassium channels via insulin-signaling pathway. Metab Brain Dis 2019; 34:119-128. [PMID: 30284676 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-018-0326-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2018] [Accepted: 09/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Corticosterone (CORT) is a kind of corticosteroid produced by cortex of adrenal glands. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis hyperfunction leads to excessive CORT, which is associated with depression. Few studies have investigated the role of CORT in voltage-gated ion channels and its upstream signaling pathway in central nervous system. In this study, we investigated the mechanism of excessive CORT resulting in brain impairment on voltage-gated ion channels, and its upstream signaling effectors in hippocampal CA1 neurons. The action potential (AP) and voltage-gated potassium currents were determined by using whole-cell patch-clamp. Insulin and CORT improved the neuronal excitability. Independent effects existed in transient potassium channel (IA) and delay rectifier potassium channel (IK). The inhibition of potassium currents, IA in our experiment, could increase neuronal excitability. CORT led to the excitotoxicity of hippocampal neurons via phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase (PI3K)-mediated insulin-signaling pathway. Therefore, the stimulation of excessive CORT induces excitotoxicity of hippocampal neurons and sensitivity of potassium channels via PI3K-mediated insulin-signaling pathway, which indicates one possible way of depression treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingqing Xia
- College of Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, Key Laboratory of Bioactive Materials for Ministry of Education, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Hui Wang
- College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Hongqiang Yin
- College of Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, Key Laboratory of Bioactive Materials for Ministry of Education, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Zhuo Yang
- College of Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, Key Laboratory of Bioactive Materials for Ministry of Education, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China.
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13
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Neuroprotective Mechanisms of Resveratrol in Alzheimer's Disease: Role of SIRT1. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2018; 2018:8152373. [PMID: 30510627 PMCID: PMC6232815 DOI: 10.1155/2018/8152373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 218] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2018] [Revised: 07/21/2018] [Accepted: 08/15/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive and neurodegenerative disorder of the cortex and hippocampus, which eventually leads to cognitive impairment. Although the etiology of AD remains unclear, the presence of β-amyloid (Aβ) peptides in these learning and memory regions is a hallmark of AD. Therefore, the inhibition of Aβ peptide aggregation has been considered the primary therapeutic strategy for AD treatment. Many studies have shown that resveratrol has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties and can decrease the toxicity and aggregation of Aβ peptides in the hippocampus of AD patients, promote neurogenesis, and prevent hippocampal damage. In addition, the antioxidant activity of resveratrol plays an important role in neuronal differentiation through the activation of silent information regulator-1 (SIRT1). SIRT1 plays a vital role in the growth and differentiation of neurons and prevents the apoptotic death of these neurons by deacetylating and repressing p53 activity; however, the exact mechanisms remain unclear. Resveratrol also has anti-inflammatory effects as it suppresses M1 microglia activation, which is involved in the initiation of neurodegeneration, and promotes Th2 responses by increasing anti-inflammatory cytokines and SIRT1 expression. This review will focus on the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory neuroprotective effects of resveratrol, specifically on its role in SIRT1 and the association with AD pathophysiology.
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14
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Siddiqi KS, Husen A, Sohrab SS, Yassin MO. Recent Status of Nanomaterial Fabrication and Their Potential Applications in Neurological Disease Management. NANOSCALE RESEARCH LETTERS 2018; 13:231. [PMID: 30097809 PMCID: PMC6086777 DOI: 10.1186/s11671-018-2638-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2018] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Nanomaterials (NMs) are receiving remarkable attention due to their unique properties and structure. They vary from atoms and molecules along with those of bulk materials. They can be engineered to act as drug delivery vehicles to cross blood-brain barriers (BBBs) and utilized with better efficacy and safety to deliver specific molecules into targeted cells as compared to conventional system for neurological disorders. Depending on their properties, various metal chelators, gold nanoparticles (NPs), micelles, quantum dots, polymeric NPs, liposomes, solid lipid NPs, microparticles, carbon nanotubes, and fullerenes have been utilized for various purposes including the improvement of drug delivery system, treatment response assessment, diagnosis at early stage, and management of neurological disorder by using neuro-engineering. BBB regulates micro- and macromolecule penetration/movement, thus protecting it from many kinds of illness. This phenomenon also prevents drug delivery for the neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and primary brain tumors. For some neurological disorders (AD and PD), the environmental pollution was considered as a major cause, as observed that metal and/or metal oxide from different sources are inhaled and get deposited in the lungs/brain. Old age, obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease are other factors for rapid deterioration of human health and onset of AD. In addition, gene mutations have also been examined to cause the early onset familial forms of AD. AD leads to cognitive impairment and plaque deposits in the brain leading to neuronal cell death. Based on these facts and considerations, this review elucidates the importance of frequently used metal chelators, NMs and/or NPs. The present review also discusses the current status and future challenges in terms of their application in drug delivery for neurological disease management.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Azamal Husen
- Department of Biology, College of Natural and Computational Sciences, University of Gondar, PO Box # 196, Gondar, Ethiopia
| | - Sayed Sartaj Sohrab
- Special Infectious Agents Unit, King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, PO Box # 80216, Jeddah, 21589 Saudi Arabia
| | - Mensur Osman Yassin
- Department of Surgery, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Gondar, PO Box # 196, Gondar, Ethiopia
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15
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Ding Z, Cao J, Shen Y, Zou Y, Yang X, Zhou W, Guo Q, Huang C. Resveratrol Promotes Nerve Regeneration via Activation of p300 Acetyltransferase-Mediated VEGF Signaling in a Rat Model of Sciatic Nerve Crush Injury. Front Neurosci 2018; 12:341. [PMID: 29875625 PMCID: PMC5974253 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2018.00341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2018] [Accepted: 05/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Peripheral nerve injuries are generally associated with incomplete restoration of motor function. The slow rate of nerve regeneration after injury may account for this. Although many benefits of resveratrol have been shown in the nervous system, it is not clear whether resveratrol could promote fast nerve regeneration and motor repair after peripheral nerve injury. This study showed that the motor deficits caused by sciatic nerve crush injury were alleviated by daily systematic resveratrol treatment within 10 days. Resveratrol increased the number of axons in the distal part of the injured nerve, indicating enhanced nerve regeneration. In the affected ventral spinal cord, resveratrol enhanced the expression of several vascular endothelial growth factor family proteins (VEGFs) and increased the phosphorylation of p300 through Akt signaling, indicating activation of p300 acetyltransferase. Inactivation of p300 acetyltransferase reversed the resveratrol-induced expression of VEGFs and motor repair in rats that had undergone sciatic nerve crush injury. The above results indicated that daily systematic resveratrol treatment promoted nerve regeneration and led to rapid motor repair. Resveratrol activated p300 acetyltransferase-mediated VEGF signaling in the affected ventral spinal cord, which may have thus contributed to the acceleration of nerve regeneration and motor repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuofeng Ding
- Department of Anesthesiology, Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Jiawei Cao
- Department of Anesthesiology, Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Yu Shen
- Department of Anesthesiology, Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Yu Zou
- Department of Anesthesiology, Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Xin Yang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Wen Zhou
- Department of Anesthesiology, Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Qulian Guo
- Department of Anesthesiology, Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Changsheng Huang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China
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16
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Resveratrol attenuates oxidative damage through activating mitophagy in an in vitro model of Alzheimer’s disease. Toxicol Lett 2018; 282:100-108. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2017.10.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2017] [Revised: 10/25/2017] [Accepted: 10/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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17
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Jiao C, Gao F, Ou L, Yu J, Li M, Wei P, Miao F. Tetrahydroxy stilbene glycoside (TSG) antagonizes Aβ-induced hippocampal neuron injury by suppressing mitochondrial dysfunction via Nrf2-dependent HO-1 pathway. Biomed Pharmacother 2017; 96:222-228. [PMID: 28987946 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2017.09.134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2017] [Revised: 09/25/2017] [Accepted: 09/25/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Amyloid-beta peptide (Aβ) ranks as a pivotal cause of Alzheimer's disease (AD), a common devastating dementia form in elderly. Recent research corroborated the beneficial roles of tetrahydroxystilbene glucoside (TSG) in alleviating the learning and memory of AD model and aged mice. Unfortunately, the underlying mechanism remains poorly elucidated. Here, treatment with non-toxic TSG dose-dependently antagonized Aβ-induced cytotoxic death in hippocampal neuronal cells by increasing cell viability and decreasing cell apoptosis. Furthermore, TSG also alleviated cell oxidative stress injury in response to Aβ by attenuating lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release, ROS levels and MDA leakage. Importantly, TSG administration abrogated Aβ-triggered loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (Δym), release of cytochrome c from mitochondrial to cytosol, increase in caspase-3 activity and pro-apoptotic protein Bax, and decrease in Bcl-2 protein, indicating that TSG could rescue mitochondrial dysfunctions of neuron cells under adverse Aβ condition. Subsequently, TSG induced the activation of Nrf2-HO-1 pathway. Importantly, blocking this pathway by si-Nrf2 transfection or HO-1 antagonist ZnPP notably muted the cytoprotective effects of TSG on neuronal cell cytotoxic injury upon Aβ stimulation. Together, this research substantiated a new mechanism that TSG protectively antagonized Aβ-induced hippocampal neuronal cell damage by restoring mitochondrial function via Nrf2-HO-1 pathway, implying a promising candidate against neurodegenerative diseases including AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenli Jiao
- College of Pharmacy, Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Xianyang, Shaanxi, 712046, PR China
| | - Feng Gao
- College of Pharmacy, Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Xianyang, Shaanxi, 712046, PR China
| | - Li Ou
- College of Pharmacy, Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Xianyang, Shaanxi, 712046, PR China
| | - Jinhua Yu
- College of Pharmacy, Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Xianyang, Shaanxi, 712046, PR China
| | - Min Li
- College of Pharmacy, Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Xianyang, Shaanxi, 712046, PR China
| | - Peifeng Wei
- College of Pharmacy, Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Xianyang, Shaanxi, 712046, PR China.
| | - Feng Miao
- Department of Encephalopathy, Affiliated Hospital of the Shaanxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Xianyang, Shaanxi, 712000, PR China.
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