Cognitive training in elite soccer players: evidence of narrow, but not broad transfer to visual and executive function

The model of the brain as a complex system: Interactions of physical, neural and mental states with neurocognitive functions

The isolated approaching of physical, neural and mental states and the binary classification into stable traits and fluctuating states previously lead to a limited understanding concerning underlying processes and possibilities to explain, measure and regulate neural and mental performance along with the interaction of mental states and neurocognitive traits. In this article these states are integrated by i) differentiating the model of the brain as a complex, self-organizing system, ii) showing possibilities to measure this model, iii) offering a classification of mental states and iv) presenting a holistic operationalization of state regulations and trait trainings to enhance neural and mental high-performance on a macro- and micro scale. This model integrates current findings from the theory of constructed emotions, the theory of thousand brains and complex systems theory and yields several testable hypotheses to provide an integrated reference frame for future research and applied target points to regulate and enhance performance.

There is No Supporting Evidence for a Far Transfer of General Perceptual or Cognitive Training to Sports Performance

In this opinion piece I reiterate the concepts of near and far transfer as previously described in the psychological literature. I show that despite very limited evidence, many technologies, tools and methods make questionable claims of eliciting far transfer from generic perceptual and/or cognitive training to sports performance. Specifically, this commentary illustrates with studies on stroboscopic vision, neurofeedback training and executive functions that the claims made for the beneficial effects of these training methods are currently unsubstantiated. I conclude that greater scrutiny by researchers is needed in order to assist practitioners to make better-informed decisions about tools, methods and technologies that may aid sports performance.

Effects of 6-Week Motor-Cognitive Agility Training on Football Test Performance in Adult Amateur Players - A Three-Armed Randomized Controlled Trial

Agility, defined as the ability to rapidly respond to unforeseen events, constitutes a central performance component in football. Existing agility training approaches often focus on change of direction that does not reflect the complex motor-cognitive demands on the pitch. The objective of this study is to examine the effects of a novel motor-cognitive dual-task agility training (Multiple-object tracking integrated into agility training) on agility and football-specific test performance parameters, compared to agility and a change of direction (COD) training. Adult male amateur football players (n = 42; age: 27±6; height: 181±7cm; weight: 80±12kg) were randomly allocated to one of the three intervention groups (COD, agility, agility + multiple object tracking). The Loughborough Soccer Passing Test (LSPT), a dribbling test with/without cognitive task as well as the Random Star Run (with/without ball) and the modified T-Test were assessed before and after a 6-week training period. Time effects within the T-Test (F = 83.9; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.68) and dribbling test without cognitive task (F = 23.9; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.38) with improvements of all intervention groups (p < 0.05) were found. Dribbling with cognitive task revealed a time effect (F = 7.8; p = 0.008; η2 = 0.17), with improvements exclusively in the agility and dual-task agility groups (p < 0.05). Random Star Run with and without ball exhibited a time (F = 38.8; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.5; F = 82.7; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.68) and interaction effect (F = 14.14; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.42; F = 27.8; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.59), with improvements for the agility and dual-task agility groups. LSPT showed no time, group or interaction effect. The effects of change of direction training are limited to change of direction and dribbling test performance within preplanned scenarios. In contrast, motor-cognitive agility interventions result in notable enhancements in football-specific and agility tests, incorporating decision-making and multitasking components. No differences were observed between agility and agility + multiple object tracking. To achieve a transfer to game-relevant performance, coaches should focus on integrating cognitive challenges into motor training.

Two-dimensional and three-dimensional multiple object tracking learning performance in adolescent female soccer players: The role of flow experience reflected by heart rate variability

Three-dimensional multiple object tracking (3D-MOT) has been used in various fields to mimic real-life tracking, especially in perceptual-cognitive skills training for soccer. Yet, the learning efficiency in 3D-MOT tasks has not been compared with 2D-MOT. Further, whether the advantage can be reflected by heart rate variability (HRV) based on the neurovisceral integration model should also be examined. Therefore, we used both 2D- and 3D-MOT in a brief adaptive task procedure for adolescent female soccer players with HRV measurement. A faster tracking speed threshold of participants was found in the 3D- compared to 2D-MOT, as well as average tracking speed in the last training period of 3D-MOT. Moreover, lower low frequency (LF) components of HRV in the 3D-MOT indicated a flow experience, demonstrating the provision of more attentional resources. Therefore, we observed that adolescent female soccer players demonstrated higher learning efficiency in 3D-MOT tasks in virtual reality (VR) through a higher flow experience. This study examined the learning efficiency between the two MOT tasks in the soccer domain using evidence from HRV and highlighted the utility and applicability of 3D-MOT application.

Specific relations of visual skills and executive functions in elite soccer players

Visual and cognitive skills are key to successful functioning in highly demanding settings such as elite sports. However, their mutual influence and interdependencies are not sufficiently understood yet. This cross-sectional study examined the relationship between visual skills and executive functions in elite soccer players. Fifty-nine male elite soccer players (age: 18–34 years) performed tests assessing visual clarity (left-, right-, and both eyes), contrast sensitivity, near-far quickness, and hand-eye coordination. Executive function measures included working memory capacity, cognitive flexibility, inhibition and selective attention. Overall, visual abilities were largely correlated with executive functions. Near-far quickness performance showed a large correlation with an executive function total score as well as with cognitive flexibility, working memory, and especially selective attention. Visual clarity and contrast sensitivity were moderately correlated with the cognition total score. Most consistent correlations with the visual functions were present for working memory. These findings present an overall vision-cognition relationship but also very specific linkages among subcategories of these functions, especially meaningful relations between near-far quickness, selective attention and cognitive flexibility. Further studies are needed to investigate the neuropsychological mechanisms accounting for the correlations and possible improvements of the executive functions by training specific visual skills.

Kognitionspsychologie im Fußball

Zusammenfassung. Anhand des Themas Kognitionspsychologie im Fußball ist es Ziel dieses Beitrags deutlich zu machen, warum es sinnvoll ist, dass Forschung und Praxis der Sportpsychologie und die entsprechenden Akteure integriert und eng zusammenarbeiten. Wir stellen konkrete Überlegungen vor, wie wir diesem Anspruch gerecht werden könnten und nehmen dabei auf ein aktuelles Projekt im Nachwuchsleistungsfußball Bezug. Dabei gehen wir zunächst auf ausgewählte theoretische Grundlagen der Kognitionspsychologie sowie empirische Befunde zur Rolle von Kognitionen und insbesondere der exekutiven Funktionen im Fußball ein, stellen dann Vorteile der Integration von Forschung und Praxis vor, um abschließend konkrete Anstöße zu einer möglichen Umsetzung einer verstärkten Integration von Forschung und Praxis zu geben.