Current Status and Future Direction of Nanomedicine: Focus on Advanced Biological and Medical Applications

Nanoparticle-Mediated Drug Delivery Systems for Precision Targeting in Oncology

Nanotechnology has emerged as a transformative force in oncology, facilitating advancements in site-specific cancer therapy and personalized oncomedicine. The development of nanomedicines explicitly targeted to cancer cells represents a pivotal breakthrough, allowing the development of precise interventions. These cancer-cell-targeted nanomedicines operate within the intricate milieu of the tumour microenvironment, further enhancing their therapeutic efficacy. This comprehensive review provides a contemporary perspective on precision cancer medicine and underscores the critical role of nanotechnology in advancing site-specific cancer therapy and personalized oncomedicine. It explores the categorization of nanoparticle types, distinguishing between organic and inorganic variants, and examines their significance in the targeted delivery of anticancer drugs. Current insights into the strategies for developing actively targeted nanomedicines across various cancer types are also provided, thus addressing relevant challenges associated with drug delivery barriers. Promising future directions in personalized cancer nanomedicine approaches are delivered, emphasising the imperative for continued optimization of nanocarriers in precision cancer medicine. The discussion underscores translational research's need to enhance cancer patients' outcomes by refining nanocarrier technologies in nanotechnology-driven, site-specific cancer therapy.

Nanotechnology Applications in Breast Cancer Immunotherapy

Next-generation cancer treatments are expected not only to target cancer cells but also to simultaneously train immune cells to combat cancer while modulating the immune-suppressive environment of tumors and hosts to ensure a robust and lasting response. Achieving this requires carriers that can codeliver multiple therapeutics to the right cancer and/or immune cells while ensuring patient safety. Nanotechnology holds great potential for addressing these challenges. This article highlights the recent advances in nanoimmunotherapeutic development, with a focus on breast cancer. While immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have achieved remarkable success and lead to cures in some cancers, their response rate in breast cancer is low. The poor response rate in solid tumors is often associated with the low infiltration of anti-cancer T cells and an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). To enhance anti-cancer T-cell responses, nanoparticles are employed to deliver ICIs, bispecific antibodies, cytokines, and agents that induce immunogenic cancer cell death (ICD). Additionally, nanoparticles are used to manipulate various components of the TME, such as immunosuppressive myeloid cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, and fibroblasts to improve T-cell activities. Finally, this article discusses the outlook, challenges, and future directions of nanoimmunotherapeutics.

Exploring the multifunctional roles of quantum dots for unlocking the future of biology and medicine

With recent advancements in nanomedicines and their associated research with biological fields, their translation into clinically-applicable products is still below promises. Quantum dots (QDs) have received immense research attention and investment in the four decades since their discovery. We explored the extensive biomedical applications of QDs, viz. Bio-imaging, drug research, drug delivery, immune assays, biosensors, gene therapy, diagnostics, their toxic effects, and bio-compatibility. We unravelled the possibility of using emerging data-driven methodologies (bigdata, artificial intelligence, machine learning, high-throughput experimentation, computational automation) as excellent sources for time, space, and complexity optimization. We also discussed ongoing clinical trials, related challenges, and the technical aspects that should be considered to improve the clinical fate of QDs and promising future research directions.

Employing Gamma-Ray-Modified Carbon Quantum Dots to Combat a Wide Range of Bacteria

Nowadays, it is a great challenge to develop new medicines for treating various infectious diseases. The treatment of these diseases is of utmost interest to further prevent the development of multi-drug resistance in different pathogens. Carbon quantum dots, as a new member of the carbon nanomaterials family, can potentially be used as a highly promising visible-light-triggered antibacterial agent. In this work, the results of antibacterial and cytotoxic activities of gamma-ray-irradiated carbon quantum dots are presented. Carbon quantum dots (CQDs) were synthesized from citric acid by a pyrolysis procedure and irradiated by gamma rays at different doses (25, 50, 100 and 200 kGy). Structure, chemical composition and optical properties were investigated by atomic force microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, UV-Vis spectrometry and photoluminescence. Structural analysis showed that CQDs have a spherical-like shape and dose-dependent average diameters and heights. Antibacterial tests showed that all irradiated dots had antibacterial activity but CQDs irradiated with dose of 100 kGy had antibacterial activity against all seven pathogen-reference bacterial strains. Gamma-ray-modified CQDs did not show any cytotoxicity toward human fetal-originated MRC-5 cells. Moreover, fluorescence microscopy showed excellent cellular uptake of CQDs irradiated with doses of 25 and 200 kGy into MRC-5 cells.

PEGylated Gold Nanoparticle Toxicity in Cardiomyocytes: Assessment of Size, Concentration, and Time Dependency

Gold Nanoparticles (GNPs) have shown promising capabilities for use in many in-vivo applications such as gene and drug delivery, photothermal ablation of tumors, and tracking in many imaging modalities. Yet GNPs have thus far had limited use in cardiovascular medicine. Polyethylene glycol functionalized (PEGylated) GNPs have been extensively studied in a wide array of in vitro and in vivo models with results showing no apparent toxicity, but to our knowledge an investigation has never been performed to determine direct cardiomyocyte toxicity. In this study, we assessed if PEGylated GNPs exhibited direct toxicity to a primary culture of neonatal rat cardiomyocytes in order to establish PEGylated GNPs for potential future use in cardiovascular medicine applications. We present novel results that demonstrate both a particle size and concentration dependent relationship on cell viability. Cell viability was found to be significantly enhanced for many concentrations and sizes as compared to the control and increased linearly as a function of particle diameter. Additionally, viability increased in a parabolically dependent manner as a function of decreasing particle concentration. These new results could advance understanding of nanoparticle-cell interactions and lead to the development of new applications involving the use of gold nanoparticles in cardiovascular medicine.

An Engineered Specificity of Anti-Neoplastic Agent Loaded Magnetic Nanoparticles for the Treatment of Breast Cancer

Nanoparticles have gained increased attention due to the prospection of drug delivery at target sites, thus limiting the systemic effects of the drugs. Their efficiency was further improved by adding special carriers such as magnetite (Fe3O4). It is one of the extensively used oxides of iron for both pharmaceutical and biomedical applications owing to its ease of preparation and biocompatibility. In this work, Gemcitabine magnetic nanoparticles were prepared using Fe3O4 and chitosan as the primary ingredients. Optimization was accomplished by Box-Behnken Design and factor interactions were evaluated. The desirability function approach was made to enhance the formulation concerning particle size, polydispersity index, and zeta potential. Based on this, optimized magnetic nanoparticles (O-MNP) were formulated with 300 mg of Fe3O4, 297.7 mg of chitosan, and a sonication time of 2.4 h, which can achieve the prerequisites of the target formulation. All other in vitro parameters were found to be following the requirement. In vitro cytotoxic studies for O-MNP were performed using cell cultures of breast cancer (MCF-7), leukemia (THP-1), prostate cancer (PC-3), and lung cancer (A549). O-MNP showed maximum inhibition growth with MCF-7 cell lines rather than other cell lines. The data observed here demonstrates the potential of magnetic nanoparticles of gemcitabine in treating breast cancers.

Biocompatibility of nanomaterials and their immunological properties

Nanomaterials (NMs) have revolutionized multiple aspects of medicine by enabling novel sensing, diagnostic, and therapeutic approaches. Advancements in processing and fabrication have also allowed significant expansion in the applications of the major classes of NMs based on polymer, metal/metal oxide, carbon, liposome, or multi-scale macro-nano bulk materials. Concomitantly, concerns regarding the nanotoxicity and overall biocompatibility of NMs have been raised. These involve putative negative effects on both patients and those subjected to occupational exposure during manufacturing. In this review, we describe the current state of testing of NMs including those that are in clinical use, in clinical trials, or under development. We also discuss the cellular and molecular interactions that dictate their toxicity and biocompatibility. Specifically, we focus on the reciprocal interactions between NMs and host proteins, lipids, and sugars and how these induce responses in immune and other cell types leading to topical and/or systemic effects.

Strategies for the functionalisation of gold nanorods to reduce toxicity and aid clinical translation

Gold nanorods (GNRs) show great promise as photothermal therapy agents due to their remarkable ability to convert light into heat. In most cases, gold nanorods are synthesised via a seed-mediated method assisted by surfactants. However, the toxicity of these surfactants, principally cetrimonium ions, has prevented GNRs from being used more widely in vivo. To address this issue, various detoxification and functionalisation approaches have been proposed in recent years to replace or cover surfactant coatings on the gold surface. In this short review, the advantages and limitations of each approach are examined in the context of the recent progress made towards the design of GNRs suitable for use in the body.

Gold Nanoparticles in Glioma Theranostics

Despite many endeavors to treat malignant gliomas in the last decades, the median survival of patients has not significantly improved. The infiltrative nature of high-grade gliomas and the impermeability of the blood-brain barrier to the most therapeutic agents remain major hurdles, impeding an efficacious treatment. Theranostic platforms bridging diagnosis and therapeutic modalities aim to surmount the current limitations in diagnosis and therapy of glioma. Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) due to their biocompatibility and tunable optical properties have widely been utilized for an assortment of theranostic purposes. In this Review, applications of AuNPs as imaging probes, drug/gene delivery systems, radiosensitizers, photothermal transducers, and multimodal theranostic agents in malignant gliomas are discussed. This Review also aims to provide a perspective on cancer theranostic applications of AuNPs in future clinical trials.

Biocompatibility in regenerative nanomedicine

Biocompatibility is a very common word that is used within biomaterial science and used for description of the interactions between the foreign material and the body. However, the meaning of biocompatibility as well as the mechanisms that collectively constitutes is still unclear. With the advance of nanotechnology, new concerns have been observed related to biocompatibility of these biomaterials. Due to their small size and variability of their physical and chemical properties, nanoparticles' (NP) distribution within the body and interactions with the target cells and tissues are highly variable. Here, we tried to provide an overview about NPs, the concept of biocompatibility and biocompatibility-related issues in nanomedicine and several different NPs.

Innovative approaches for cancer treatment: current perspectives and new challenges

Every year, cancer is responsible for millions of deaths worldwide and, even though much progress has been achieved in medicine, there are still many issues that must be addressed in order to improve cancer therapy. For this reason, oncological research is putting a lot of effort towards finding new and efficient therapies which can alleviate critical side effects caused by conventional treatments. Different technologies are currently under evaluation in clinical trials or have been already introduced into clinical practice. While nanomedicine is contributing to the development of biocompatible materials both for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes, bioengineering of extracellular vesicles and cells derived from patients has allowed designing ad hoc systems and univocal targeting strategies. In this review, we will provide an in-depth analysis of the most innovative advances in basic and applied cancer research.

Retinal long term neuroprotection by Cerium Oxide nanoparticles after an acute damage induced by high intensity light exposure

Cerium Oxide nanoparticles are antioxidant agents with autoregenerative radical scavenging activities, effective in preventing degeneration of photoreceptors of an albino rat when intravitreally injected prior to exposure to high intensity light. In this study, we performed a post injury administration of nanoceria and a long term analysis of their neuroprotective properties in order to better simulate the therapeutic treatment as it is carried out on patients with age related macular degeneration, and while photoreceptor degeneration is ongoing. We also injected nanoceria labelled with fluorescein isothiocianate in order to analyze their persistence after a single administration in a damaged retina and to investigate how long they both maintain their neuroprotective properties and where they localize in the retina. We demonstrated that after a single intravitreal injection, nanoceria remained in the retina for a long time and retained their neuroprotective properties. All these data form excellent bases for future clinical applications.

Characterization of drug delivery vehicles using atomic force microscopy: current status

INTRODUCTION

The field of nanomedicine, utilizing nano-sized vehicles (nanoparticles and nanofibers) for targeted local drug delivery, has a promising future. This is dependent on the ability to analyze the chemical and physical properties of these drug carriers at the nanoscale and hence atomic force microscopy (AFM), a high-resolution imaging and local force-measurement technique, is ideally suited.

AREAS COVERED

Following a brief introduction to the technique, the review describes how AFM has been used in selected publications from 2015 to 2018 to characterize nanoparticles and nanofibers as drug delivery vehicles. These sections are ordered into areas of increasing AFM complexity: imaging/particle sizing, surface roughness/quantitative analysis of images, and analysis of force curves (to extract nanoindentation and adhesion data).

EXPERT OPINION

AFM imaging/sizing is used extensively for the characterization of nanoparticle and nanofiber drug delivery vehicles, with surface roughness and nanomechanical/adhesion data acquisition being less common. The field is progressing into combining AFM with other techniques, notably SEM, ToF-SIMS, Raman, Confocal, and UV. Current limitations include a 50 nm resolution limit of nanoparticles imaged within live cells and AFM tip-induced activation of cytoskeleton proteins. Following drug release real-time with AFM-spectroscopic techniques and studying drug interactions on cell receptors appear to be on the horizon.

Hyperthermia-Triggered Gemcitabine Release from Polymer-Coated Magnetite Nanoparticles

In this work a combined, multifunctional platform, which was devised for the simultaneous application of magnetic hyperthermia and the delivery of the antitumor drug gemcitabine, is described and tested in vitro. The system consists of magnetite particles embedded in a polymer envelope, designed to make them biocompatible, thanks to the presence of poly (ethylene glycol) in the polymer shell. The commercial particles, after thorough cleaning, are provided with carboxyl terminal groups, so that at physiological pH they present negative surface charge. This was proved by electrophoresis, and makes it possible to electrostatically adsorb gemcitabine hydrochloride, which is the active drug of the resulting nanostructure. Both electrophoresis and infrared spectroscopy are used to confirm the adsorption of the drug. The gemcitabine-loaded particles are tested regarding their ability to release it while heating the surroundings by magnetic hyperthermia, in principle their chances as antitumor agents. The release, with first-order kinetics, is found to be faster when carried out in a thermostated bath at 43 °C than at 37 °C, as expected. But, the main result of this investigation is that while the particles retain their hyperthermia response, with reasonably high heating power, they release the drug faster and with zeroth-order kinetics when they are maintained at 43 °C under the action of the alternating magnetic field used for hyperthermia.

Fundamentals and commercial aspects of nanobiosensors in point-of-care clinical diagnostics

Among various problems faced by mankind, health-related concerns are prevailing since long which are commonly found in the form of infectious diseases and different metabolic disorders. The clinical cure and management of such abnormalities are greatly dependent on the availability of their diagnoses. The conventional diagnostics used for such purposes are extremely powerful; however, most of these are limited by time-consuming protocols and require higher volume of test sample, etc. A new evolving technology called "biosensor" in this context shows an enormous potential for an alternative diagnostic device, which constantly compliments the conventional diagnoses. In this review, we have summarized different kinds of biosensors and their fundamental understanding with various state-of-the-art examples. A critical examination of different types of biosensing mechanisms is also reported highlighting the advantages of electrochemical biosensors for its great potentials in next-generation commercially viable modules. In recent years, a number of nanomaterials are extensively used to enhance not only the performance of biosensing mechanism, but also obtain robust, cheap, and fabrication-friendly durable mechanism. Herein, we have summarized the importance of nanomaterials in biosensing mechanism, their syntheses as well as characterization techniques. Subsequently, we have discussed the probe fabrication processes along with various techniques for assessing its analytical performances and potentials for commercial viability.