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Capozzi F, Sorrentino MC, Granata A, Vergara A, Alberico M, Rossi M, Spagnuolo V, Giordano S. Optimizing Moss and Lichen Transplants as Biomonitors of Airborne Anthropogenic Microfibers. BIOLOGY 2023; 12:1278. [PMID: 37886988 PMCID: PMC10604676 DOI: 10.3390/biology12101278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Revised: 09/20/2023] [Accepted: 09/23/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
Anthropogenic microfibers (mfs) are synthetic particles composed of cellulose (cotton, rayon, acetate, etc.) or petrochemical-based polymers (i.e., microplastics-MPs) that are less than 5 mm in length. The accumulation of mfs, including MPs, in the moss Hypnum cupressiforme and the lichen Pseudevernia furfuracea was compared in a transplant experiment lasting 6 weeks. We also tested the effects of the bag used for transplants on the accumulation of mfs. Anthropogenic particles trapped by both biomonitors were mostly filamentous (99% mfs), and their number was overall higher in the moss (mean ± s.d. 102 ± 24) than in the lichen (mean ± s.d. 87 ± 17), at parity of sample weight. On average, mfs found in lichen were significantly longer than those found in moss bags, suggesting that lichens are less efficient at retaining smaller mfs. Exposure without the net yielded a higher mfs number accumulation in both species, indicating that "naked" transplants provide greater sensitivity. The calculation of daily fluxes evidenced a loss of mfs in the lichen, suggesting the presence of more stable bonds between moss and mfs. Raman microspectroscopy carried out on about 100 debris confirms the anthropogenic nature of mfs, of which 20% were MPs. Overall results indicate that moss is preferable to lichen in the biomonitoring of airborne mfs especially when exposed naked.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fiore Capozzi
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, 80126 Napoli, Italy; (F.C.); (M.C.S.); (A.G.); (S.G.)
| | - Maria Cristina Sorrentino
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, 80126 Napoli, Italy; (F.C.); (M.C.S.); (A.G.); (S.G.)
| | - Angelo Granata
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, 80126 Napoli, Italy; (F.C.); (M.C.S.); (A.G.); (S.G.)
| | - Alessandro Vergara
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, 80126 Napoles, Italy; (A.V.); (M.A.)
| | - Miriam Alberico
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, 80126 Napoles, Italy; (A.V.); (M.A.)
- Department of Classics, University La Sapienza, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Manuela Rossi
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, 80126 Naples, Italy;
| | - Valeria Spagnuolo
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, 80126 Napoli, Italy; (F.C.); (M.C.S.); (A.G.); (S.G.)
| | - Simonetta Giordano
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, 80126 Napoli, Italy; (F.C.); (M.C.S.); (A.G.); (S.G.)
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Pichler G, Muggia L, Carniel FC, Grube M, Kranner I. How to build a lichen: from metabolite release to symbiotic interplay. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2023; 238:1362-1378. [PMID: 36710517 PMCID: PMC10952756 DOI: 10.1111/nph.18780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Exposing their vegetative bodies to the light, lichens are outstanding amongst other fungal symbioses. Not requiring a pre-established host, 'lichenized fungi' build an entirely new structure together with microbial photosynthetic partners that neither can form alone. The signals involved in the transition of a fungus and a compatible photosynthetic partner from a free-living to a symbiotic state culminating in thallus formation, termed 'lichenization', and in the maintenance of the symbiosis, are poorly understood. Here, we synthesise the puzzle pieces of the scarce knowledge available into an updated concept of signalling involved in lichenization, comprising five main stages: (1) the 'pre-contact stage', (2) the 'contact stage', (3) 'envelopment' of algal cells by the fungus, (4) their 'incorporation' into a pre-thallus and (5) 'differentiation' into a complex thallus. Considering the involvement of extracellularly released metabolites in each phase, we propose that compounds such as fungal lectins and algal cyclic peptides elicit early contact between the symbionts-to-be, whereas phytohormone signalling, antioxidant protection and carbon exchange through sugars and sugar alcohols are of continued importance throughout all stages. In the fully formed lichen thallus, secondary lichen metabolites and mineral nutrition are suggested to stabilize the functionalities of the thallus, including the associated microbiota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregor Pichler
- Department of BotanyUniversity of InnsbruckSternwartestraße 156020InnsbruckAustria
| | - Lucia Muggia
- Department of Life SciencesUniversity of TriesteVia L. Giorgieri 1034127TriesteItaly
| | | | - Martin Grube
- Institute of BiologyUniversity of GrazHolteigasse 68010GrazAustria
| | - Ilse Kranner
- Department of BotanyUniversity of InnsbruckSternwartestraße 156020InnsbruckAustria
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Borgato L, Ertz D, Van Rossum F, Verbeken A. The Diversity of Lichenized Trentepohlioid Algal (Ulvophyceae) Communities is Driven by Fungal Taxonomy and Ecological Factors. JOURNAL OF PHYCOLOGY 2022; 58:582-602. [PMID: 35460260 DOI: 10.1111/jpy.13252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Revised: 03/23/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Trentepohliales are a group of both free-living and lichenized algae, with most diversity occurring in tropical regions. Recent studies showed that the abundance of lichens with a trentepohlioid photobiont has been increasing in temperate habitats, probably because of global warming, which makes them an interesting study case. A detailed molecular study of the diversity of lichenized Trentepohliales, epiphytic as well as epilithic, was performed in three forests of north-western Europe. Additional samples of lichens of the Arthoniales order (associating essentially with a trentepohlioid photobiont) from other European regions and from other continents were also sequenced. A total of 195 algal sequences were obtained. Phylogenetic analyses with rbcL and ITS loci were performed and associations between phylogenetic distances of photobionts and ecological factors (substratum, climate or Wirth indices, mycobiont taxonomy, and geographic location) were tested by variation partitioning and phylogenetic signal analyses. The high number of rbcL algal haplotypes found in some lichens or on different substrata revealed that the Trentepohliales diversity in extratropical regions was underestimated. The phylogenetic patterns showed selectivity of some photobionts in their fungal partner choice and vice-versa, while others were linked with several haplotypes. Photobionts seemed to be less selective than mycobionts. The main factors influencing lichenized algal community were climate and mycobiont species. Coevolution between mycobionts and photobionts as well as switching between free living and lichenized lifestyles appeared to drive the evolution of Trentepohliales and might explain the high cryptic diversity observed, which might be changing in some regions due to climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Borgato
- Research Group Mycology, Ghent University, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, Gent, BE-9000, Belgium
- Research Department, Meise Botanic Garden, Nieuwelaan 38, Meise, BE-1860, Belgium
| | - Damien Ertz
- Research Department, Meise Botanic Garden, Nieuwelaan 38, Meise, BE-1860, Belgium
- Fédération Wallonie-Bruxelles, Service Général de l'Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche Scientifique, rue A. Lavallée 1, Bruxelles, BE-1080, Belgium
| | - Fabienne Van Rossum
- Research Department, Meise Botanic Garden, Nieuwelaan 38, Meise, BE-1860, Belgium
- Fédération Wallonie-Bruxelles, Service Général de l'Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche Scientifique, rue A. Lavallée 1, Bruxelles, BE-1080, Belgium
| | - Annemieke Verbeken
- Research Group Mycology, Ghent University, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, Gent, BE-9000, Belgium
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Arakawa S, Kanaseki T, Wagner R, Goodenough U. Ultrastructure of the foliose lichen Myelochroa leucotyliza and its solo fungal and algal (Trebouxia sp.) partners. ALGAL RES 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2021.102571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
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Nazem-Bokaee H, Hom EFY, Warden AC, Mathews S, Gueidan C. Towards a Systems Biology Approach to Understanding the Lichen Symbiosis: Opportunities and Challenges of Implementing Network Modelling. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:667864. [PMID: 34012428 PMCID: PMC8126723 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.667864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2021] [Accepted: 04/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Lichen associations, a classic model for successful and sustainable interactions between micro-organisms, have been studied for many years. However, there are significant gaps in our understanding about how the lichen symbiosis operates at the molecular level. This review addresses opportunities for expanding current knowledge on signalling and metabolic interplays in the lichen symbiosis using the tools and approaches of systems biology, particularly network modelling. The largely unexplored nature of symbiont recognition and metabolic interdependency in lichens could benefit from applying a holistic approach to understand underlying molecular mechanisms and processes. Together with ‘omics’ approaches, the application of signalling and metabolic network modelling could provide predictive means to gain insights into lichen signalling and metabolic pathways. First, we review the major signalling and recognition modalities in the lichen symbioses studied to date, and then describe how modelling signalling networks could enhance our understanding of symbiont recognition, particularly leveraging omics techniques. Next, we highlight the current state of knowledge on lichen metabolism. We also discuss metabolic network modelling as a tool to simulate flux distribution in lichen metabolic pathways and to analyse the co-dependence between symbionts. This is especially important given the growing number of lichen genomes now available and improved computational tools for reconstructing such models. We highlight the benefits and possible bottlenecks for implementing different types of network models as applied to the study of lichens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hadi Nazem-Bokaee
- CSIRO Australian National Herbarium, Centre for Australian National Biodiversity Research, National Research Collections Australia, NCMI, Canberra, ACT, Australia.,CSIRO Land and Water, Canberra, ACT, Australia.,CSIRO Synthetic Biology Future Science Platform, Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - Erik F Y Hom
- Department of Biology and Center for Biodiversity and Conservation Research, The University of Mississippi, University City, MS, United States
| | | | - Sarah Mathews
- Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States
| | - Cécile Gueidan
- CSIRO Australian National Herbarium, Centre for Australian National Biodiversity Research, National Research Collections Australia, NCMI, Canberra, ACT, Australia
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Carr EC, Harris SD, Herr JR, Riekhof WR. Lichens and biofilms: Common collective growth imparts similar developmental strategies. ALGAL RES 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2021.102217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Kono M, Kon Y, Ohmura Y, Satta Y, Terai Y. In vitro resynthesis of lichenization reveals the genetic background of symbiosis-specific fungal-algal interaction in Usnea hakonensis. BMC Genomics 2020; 21:671. [PMID: 32993496 PMCID: PMC7526373 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-020-07086-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Symbiosis is central to ecosystems and has been an important driving force of the diversity of life. Close and long-term interactions are known to develop cooperative molecular mechanisms between the symbiotic partners and have often given them new functions as symbiotic entities. In lichen symbiosis, mutualistic relationships between lichen-forming fungi and algae and/or cyanobacteria produce unique features that make lichens adaptive to a wide range of environments. Although the morphological, physiological, and ecological uniqueness of lichens has been described for more than a century, the genetic mechanisms underlying this symbiosis are still poorly known. RESULTS This study investigated the fungal-algal interaction specific to the lichen symbiosis using Usnea hakonensis as a model system. The whole genome of U. hakonensis, the fungal partner, was sequenced by using a culture isolated from a natural lichen thallus. Isolated cultures of the fungal and the algal partners were co-cultured in vitro for 3 months, and thalli were successfully resynthesized as visible protrusions. Transcriptomes of resynthesized and natural thalli (symbiotic states) were compared to that of isolated cultures (non-symbiotic state). Sets of fungal and algal genes up-regulated in both symbiotic states were identified as symbiosis-related genes. CONCLUSION From predicted functions of these genes, we identified genetic association with two key features fundamental to the symbiotic lifestyle in lichens. The first is establishment of a fungal symbiotic interface: (a) modification of cell walls at fungal-algal contact sites; and (b) production of a hydrophobic layer that ensheaths fungal and algal cells;. The second is symbiosis-specific nutrient flow: (a) the algal supply of photosynthetic product to the fungus; and (b) the fungal supply of phosphorous and nitrogen compounds to the alga. Since both features are widespread among lichens, our result may indicate important facets of the genetic basis of the lichen symbiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mieko Kono
- SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), Department of Evolutionary Studies of Biosystems, Shonan Village, Hayama, Kanagawa, 240-0193, Japan.
- Department of Botany, Swedish Museum of Natural History, P.O. Box 50007, SE-104 05, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Yoshiaki Kon
- Tokyo Metropolitan Hitotsubashi High School, 1-12-13 Higashikanda, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 101-0031, Japan
| | - Yoshihito Ohmura
- Department of Botany, National Museum of Nature and Science, 4-1-1 Amakubo, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0005, Japan
| | - Yoko Satta
- SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), Department of Evolutionary Studies of Biosystems, Shonan Village, Hayama, Kanagawa, 240-0193, Japan
| | - Yohey Terai
- SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), Department of Evolutionary Studies of Biosystems, Shonan Village, Hayama, Kanagawa, 240-0193, Japan
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Wang Y, Wei X, Bian Z, Wei J, Xu JR. Coregulation of dimorphism and symbiosis by cyclic AMP signaling in the lichenized fungus Umbilicaria muhlenbergii. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:23847-23858. [PMID: 32873646 PMCID: PMC7519320 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2005109117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Umbilicaria muhlenbergii is the only known dimorphic lichenized fungus that grows in the hyphal form in lichen thalli but as yeast cells in axenic cultures. However, the regulation of yeast-to-hypha transition and its relationship to the establishment of symbiosis are not clear. In this study, we show that nutrient limitation and hyperosmotic stress trigger the dimorphic change in U. muhlenbergii Contact with algal cells of its photobiont Trebouxia jamesii induced pseudohyphal growth. Treatments with the cAMP diphosphoesterase inhibitor IBMX (3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine) induced pseudohyphal/hyphal growth and resulted in the differentiation of heavily melanized, lichen cortex-like structures in culture, indicating the role of cAMP signaling in regulating dimorphism. To confirm this observation, we identified and characterized two Gα subunits UmGPA2 and UmGPA3 Whereas deletion of UmGPA2 had only a minor effect on pseudohyphal growth, the ΔUmgpa3 mutant was defective in yeast-to-pseudohypha transition induced by hyperosmotic stress or T. jamesii cells. IBMX treatment suppressed the defect of ΔUmgpa3 in pseudohyphal growth. Transformants expressing the UmGPA3G45V or UmGPA3Q208L dominant active allele were enhanced in the yeast-to-pseudohypha transition and developed pseudohyphae under conditions noninducible to the wild type. Interestingly, T. jamesii cells in close contact with pseudohyphae of UmGPA3G45V and UmGPA3Q208L transformants often collapsed and died after coincubation for over 72 h, indicating that improperly regulated pseudohyphal growth due to dominant active mutations may disrupt the initial establishment of symbiotic interaction between the photobiont and mycobiont. Taken together, these results show that the cAMP-PKA pathway plays a critical role in regulating dimorphism and symbiosis in U. muhlenbergii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanyan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100101 Beijing, China
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907
| | - Xinli Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100101 Beijing, China
| | - Zhuyun Bian
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907
| | - Jiangchun Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100101 Beijing, China
| | - Jin-Rong Xu
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907
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Cardós JLH, Prieto M, Jylhä M, Aragón G, Molina MC, Martínez I, Rikkinen J. A case study on the re-establishment of the cyanolichen symbiosis: where do the compatible photobionts come from? ANNALS OF BOTANY 2019; 124:379-388. [PMID: 31329832 PMCID: PMC6798828 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcz052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2018] [Accepted: 03/19/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS In order to re-establish lichen symbiosis, fungal spores must first germinate and then associate with a compatible photobiont. To detect possible establishment limitations in a sexually reproducing cyanolichen species, we studied ascospore germination, photobiont growth and photobiont association patterns in Pectenia plumbea. METHODS Germination tests were made with ascospores from 500 apothecia under different treatments, and photobiont growth was analysed in 192 isolates obtained from 24 thalli. We determined the genotype identity [tRNALeu (UAA) intron] of the Nostoc cyanobionts from 30 P. plumbea thalli from one population. We also sequenced cyanobionts of 41 specimens of other cyanolichen species and 58 Nostoc free-living colonies cultured from the bark substrate. KEY RESULTS Not a single fungal ascospore germinated and none of the photobiont isolates produced motile hormogonia. Genetic analyses revealed that P. plumbea shares Nostoc genotypes with two other cyanolichen species of the same habitat, but these photobionts were hardly present in the bark substrate. CONCLUSIONS Due to the inability of both symbionts to thrive independently, the establishment of P. plumbea seems to depend on Dendriscocaulon umhausense, the only cyanolichen species in the same habitat that reproduces asexually and acts as a source of appropriate cyanobionts. This provides support to the hypothesis about facilitation among lichens.
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Affiliation(s)
- J L H Cardós
- Área de Biodiversidad y Conservación, ESCET, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Móstoles, Madrid, Spain
| | - M Prieto
- Área de Biodiversidad y Conservación, ESCET, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Móstoles, Madrid, Spain
| | - M Jylhä
- Department of Biology and Geology, Physics and Inorganic Chemistry, Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - G Aragón
- Área de Biodiversidad y Conservación, ESCET, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Móstoles, Madrid, Spain
| | - M C Molina
- Área de Biodiversidad y Conservación, ESCET, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Móstoles, Madrid, Spain
| | - I Martínez
- Área de Biodiversidad y Conservación, ESCET, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Móstoles, Madrid, Spain
| | - J Rikkinen
- Department of Biology and Geology, Physics and Inorganic Chemistry, Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Finland
- Finnish Museum of Natural History, University of Helsinki, Finland
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Determeyer-Wiedmann N, Sadowsky A, Convey P, Ott S. Physiological life history strategies of photobionts of lichen species from Antarctic and moderate European habitats in response to stressful conditions. Polar Biol 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s00300-018-2430-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Calcott MJ, Ackerley DF, Knight A, Keyzers RA, Owen JG. Secondary metabolism in the lichen symbiosis. Chem Soc Rev 2018; 47:1730-1760. [PMID: 29094129 DOI: 10.1039/c7cs00431a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Lichens, which are defined by a core symbiosis between a mycobiont (fungal partner) and a photobiont (photoautotrophic partner), are in fact complex assemblages of microorganisms that constitute a largely untapped source of bioactive secondary metabolites. Historically, compounds isolated from lichens have predominantly been those produced by the dominant fungal partner, and these continue to be of great interest for their unique chemistry and biotechnological potential. In recent years it has become apparent that many photobionts and lichen-associated bacteria also produce a range of potentially valuable molecules. There is evidence to suggest that the unique nature of the symbiosis has played a substantial role in shaping many aspects of lichen chemistry, for example driving bacteria to produce metabolites that do not bring them direct benefit but are useful to the lichen as a whole. This is most evident in studies of cyanobacterial photobionts, which produce compounds that differ from free living cyanobacteria and are unique to symbiotic organisms. The roles that these and other lichen-derived molecules may play in communication and maintaining the symbiosis are poorly understood at present. Nonetheless, advances in genomics, mass spectrometry and other analytical technologies are continuing to illuminate the wealth of biological and chemical diversity present within the lichen holobiome. Implementation of novel biodiscovery strategies such as metagenomic screening, coupled with synthetic biology approaches to reconstitute, re-engineer and heterologously express lichen-derived biosynthetic gene clusters in a cultivable host, offer a promising means for tapping into this hitherto inaccessible wealth of natural products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark J Calcott
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand.
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A standardized approach for co-culturing dothidealean rock-inhabiting fungi and lichen photobionts in vitro. Symbiosis 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s13199-017-0479-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Abstract
ABSTRACT
Lichen symbioses comprise a fascinating relationship between algae and fungi. The lichen symbiotic lifestyle evolved early in the evolution of ascomycetes and is also known from a few basidiomycetes. The ascomycete lineages have diversified in the lichenized stage to give rise to a tremendous variety of morphologies. Their thalli are often internally complex and stratified for optimized integration of algal and fungal metabolisms. Thalli are frequently colonized by specific nonlichenized fungi and occasionally also by other lichens. Microscopy has revealed various ways these fungi interact with their hosts. Besides the morphologically recognizable diversity of the lichen mycobionts and lichenicolous (lichen-inhabiting) fungi, many other microorganisms including other fungi and bacterial communities are now detected in lichens by culture-dependent and culture-independent approaches. The application of multi-omics approaches, refined microscopic techniques, and physiological studies has added to our knowledge of lichens, not only about the taxa involved in the lichen interactions, but also about their functions.
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Lichen photobiont diversity and selectivity at the southern limit of the maritime Antarctic region (Coal Nunatak, Alexander Island). Polar Biol 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s00300-016-1915-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Athukorala SNP, Piercey-Normore MD. Recognition- and defense-related gene expression at 3 resynthesis stages in lichen symbionts. Can J Microbiol 2015; 61:1-12. [PMID: 25485526 DOI: 10.1139/cjm-2014-0470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Recognition and defense responses are early events in plant-pathogen interactions and between lichen symbionts. The effect of elicitors on responses between lichen symbionts is not well understood. The objective of this study was to compare the difference in recognition- and defense-related gene expression as a result of culture extracts (containing secreted water-soluble elicitors) from compatible and incompatible interactions at each of 3 resynthesis stages in the symbionts of Cladonia rangiferina. This study investigated gene expression by quantitative PCR in cultures of C. rangiferina and its algal partner, Asterochloris glomerata/irregularis, after incubation with liquid extracts from cultures of compatible and incompatible interactions at 3 early resynthesis stages. Recognition-related genes were significantly upregulated only after physical contact, demonstrating symbiont recognition in later resynthesis stages than expected. One of 3 defense-related genes, chit, showed significant downregulation in early resynthesis stages and upregulation in the third resynthesis stage, demonstrating a need for the absence of chitinase early in thallus formation and a need for its presence in later stages as an algal defense reaction. This study revealed that recognition- and defense-related genes are triggered by components in culture extracts at 3 stages of resynthesis, and some defense-related genes may be induced throughout thallus growth. The parasitic nature of the interaction shows parallels between lichen symbionts and plant pathogenic systems.
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Athukorala SNP, Piercey-Normore MD. Effect of temperature and pH on the early stages of interaction of compatible partners of the lichen Cladonia rangiferina (Cladoniaceae). Symbiosis 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s13199-014-0307-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Meessen J, Sánchez FJ, Sadowsky A, de la Torre R, Ott S, de Vera JP. Extremotolerance and resistance of lichens: comparative studies on five species used in astrobiological research II. Secondary lichen compounds. ORIGINS LIFE EVOL B 2013; 43:501-26. [PMID: 24362711 DOI: 10.1007/s11084-013-9348-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2013] [Accepted: 10/25/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Lichens, which are symbioses of a fungus and one or two photoautotrophs, frequently tolerate extreme environmental conditions. This makes them valuable model systems in astrobiological research to fathom the limits and limitations of eukaryotic symbioses. Various studies demonstrated the high resistance of selected extremotolerant lichens towards extreme, non-terrestrial abiotic factors including space exposure, hypervelocity impact simulations as well as space and Martian parameter simulations. This study focusses on the diverse set of secondary lichen compounds (SLCs) that act as photo- and UVR-protective substances. Five lichen species used in present-day astrobiological research were compared: Buellia frigida, Circinaria gyrosa, Rhizocarpon geographicum, Xanthoria elegans, and Pleopsidium chlorophanum. Detailed investigation of secondary substances including photosynthetic pigments was performed for whole lichen thalli but also for axenically cultivated mycobionts and photobionts by methods of UV/VIS-spectrophotometry and two types of high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Additionally, a set of chemical tests is presented to confirm the formation of melanic compounds in lichen and mycobiont samples. All investigated lichens reveal various sets of SLCs, except C. gyrosa where only melanin was putatively identified. Such studies will help to assess the contribution of SLCs on lichen extremotolerance, to understand the adaptation of lichens to prevalent abiotic stressors of the respective habitat, and to form a basis for interpreting recent and future astrobiological experiments. As most of the identified SLCs demonstrated a high capacity in absorbing UVR, they may also explain the high resistance of lichens towards non-terrestrial UVR.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Meessen
- Institut für Botanik, Heinrich-Heine-Universität (HHU), Universitätsstr.1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany,
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Athukorala SNP, Huebner E, Piercey-Normore MD. Identification and comparison of the 3 early stages of resynthesis for the lichen Cladonia rangiferina. Can J Microbiol 2013; 60:41-52. [PMID: 24392925 DOI: 10.1139/cjm-2013-0313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A lichen is an association between a biotrophic fungal partner and a green algal and (or) cyanobacterial partner, which may be considered a "controlled" parasitic interaction. While controlled parasitism implies benefit to both interacting partners, a parasitism that is not controlled implies that one partner benefits to the detriment of the other partner. The objective of this study was to compare morphological development of the interaction between Cladonia rangiferina with its compatible algal partner (Asterochloris glomerata/irregularis) and incompatible algae (Coccomyxa peltigerae and Chloroidium ellipsoideum) at 3 early resynthesis stages. The fungus was co-inoculated with each alga separately and the stages of development were compared using quantitative measures. The first 3 stages of development of the lichen thallus were identified in the compatible interaction as the "pre-contact" stage (1 day post co-inoculation (PCI)), "contact" stage (8 days PCI), and "growth together" stage (21 days PCI). Compatible interactions showed significantly shorter internode length, significantly more new lateral hyphal branches, significantly greater appressorial frequency, and no reduction in cell diameter of the algal cells, compared with incompatible interactions. At 21 days PCI, a parasitic interaction was observed between Cladonia rangiferina and Chloroidium ellipsoideum. These findings support the importance of recognition between compatible partners for successful lichenization. This study also revealed a strategy that may explain the success of this species in northern habitats. Identification of the resynthesis stages of Cladonia rangiferina is required before expression of the proteins involved in recognition and defense can be understood.
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