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Agaras BC, Grossi CEM, Ulloa RM. Unveiling the Secrets of Calcium-Dependent Proteins in Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria: An Abundance of Discoveries Awaits. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:3398. [PMID: 37836138 PMCID: PMC10574481 DOI: 10.3390/plants12193398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Revised: 09/20/2023] [Accepted: 09/22/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023]
Abstract
The role of Calcium ions (Ca2+) is extensively documented and comprehensively understood in eukaryotic organisms. Nevertheless, emerging insights, primarily derived from studies on human pathogenic bacteria, suggest that this ion also plays a pivotal role in prokaryotes. In this review, our primary focus will be on unraveling the intricate Ca2+ toolkit within prokaryotic organisms, with particular emphasis on its implications for plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR). We undertook an in silico exploration to pinpoint and identify some of the proteins described in the existing literature, including prokaryotic Ca2+ channels, pumps, and exchangers that are responsible for regulating intracellular Calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i), along with the Calcium-binding proteins (CaBPs) that play a pivotal role in sensing and transducing this essential cation. These investigations were conducted in four distinct PGPR strains: Pseudomonas chlororaphis subsp. aurantiaca SMMP3, P. donghuensis SVBP6, Pseudomonas sp. BP01, and Methylobacterium sp. 2A, which have been isolated and characterized within our research laboratories. We also present preliminary experimental data to evaluate the influence of exogenous Ca2+ concentrations ([Ca2+]ex) on the growth dynamics of these strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Betina Cecilia Agaras
- Laboratory of Physiology and Genetics of Plant Probiotic Bacteria (LFGBBP), Centre of Biochemistry and Microbiology of Soils, National University of Quilmes, Bernal B1876BXD, Argentina
- National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), Buenos Aires C1425FQB, Argentina;
| | - Cecilia Eugenia María Grossi
- National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), Buenos Aires C1425FQB, Argentina;
- Laboratory of Plant Signal Transduction, Institute of Genetic Engineering and Molecular Biology (INGEBI), National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), Buenos Aires C1425FQB, Argentina
| | - Rita María Ulloa
- National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), Buenos Aires C1425FQB, Argentina;
- Laboratory of Plant Signal Transduction, Institute of Genetic Engineering and Molecular Biology (INGEBI), National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), Buenos Aires C1425FQB, Argentina
- Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Exact and Natural Sciences, University of Buenos Aires (FCEN-UBA), Buenos Aires C1428EGA, Argentina
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2
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Chen Y, Jin T, Li M, Yun X, Huan F, Liu Q, Hu M, Wei X, Zheng P, Liu G. Crystal Structure Analysis of Sarcoplasmic-Calcium-Binding Protein: An Allergen in Scylla paramamosain. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2023; 71:1214-1223. [PMID: 36602420 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.2c07267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The structure of allergenic proteins provides important information about the binding of allergens to antibodies. In this study, the crystal structure of Scy p 4 with a resolution of 1.60 Å was obtained by X-ray diffraction. Epitope mapping of Scy p 4 revealed that linear epitopes are located on the surface of Scy p 4. Also, conformational epitopes are mostly located in the structural conservative region. Further structural comparison, surface electrostatic potential, and hydrogen bond force analysis showed that mutation of Asp70 and Asp18/20/70 would lead to calcium-binding capacity being lost and destruction of allergenicity. Furthermore, a comparative analysis of structure showed that sarcoplasmic-calcium-binding protein (SCP) had high sequence, secondary, and spatial structural identity in crustaceans, which may be an important factor leading to cross-reactivity among crustaceans. The structure of Scy p 4 provides a template for epitope evaluation and localization of SCPs, which will help to reveal cross-reactivity among species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiyu Chen
- College of Ocean Food and Biological Engineering, Xiamen Key Laboratory of Marine Functional Food, Fujian Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Marine Functional Food, Fujian Collaborative Innovation Center for Exploitation and Utilization of Marine Biological Resources, Jimei University, Xiamen, Fujian 361021, China
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Tengchuan Jin
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at Microscale, CAS Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science & Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China
| | - Mengsi Li
- College of Ocean Food and Biological Engineering, Xiamen Key Laboratory of Marine Functional Food, Fujian Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Marine Functional Food, Fujian Collaborative Innovation Center for Exploitation and Utilization of Marine Biological Resources, Jimei University, Xiamen, Fujian 361021, China
| | - Xiao Yun
- College of Ocean Food and Biological Engineering, Xiamen Key Laboratory of Marine Functional Food, Fujian Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Marine Functional Food, Fujian Collaborative Innovation Center for Exploitation and Utilization of Marine Biological Resources, Jimei University, Xiamen, Fujian 361021, China
| | - Fei Huan
- College of Ocean Food and Biological Engineering, Xiamen Key Laboratory of Marine Functional Food, Fujian Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Marine Functional Food, Fujian Collaborative Innovation Center for Exploitation and Utilization of Marine Biological Resources, Jimei University, Xiamen, Fujian 361021, China
| | - Qingmei Liu
- College of Ocean Food and Biological Engineering, Xiamen Key Laboratory of Marine Functional Food, Fujian Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Marine Functional Food, Fujian Collaborative Innovation Center for Exploitation and Utilization of Marine Biological Resources, Jimei University, Xiamen, Fujian 361021, China
| | - Mengjun Hu
- College of Ocean Food and Biological Engineering, Xiamen Key Laboratory of Marine Functional Food, Fujian Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Marine Functional Food, Fujian Collaborative Innovation Center for Exploitation and Utilization of Marine Biological Resources, Jimei University, Xiamen, Fujian 361021, China
| | - Xiaofeng Wei
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Peiyi Zheng
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at Microscale, CAS Key Laboratory of Innate Immunity and Chronic Disease, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science & Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui 230026, China
| | - Guangming Liu
- College of Ocean Food and Biological Engineering, Xiamen Key Laboratory of Marine Functional Food, Fujian Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Marine Functional Food, Fujian Collaborative Innovation Center for Exploitation and Utilization of Marine Biological Resources, Jimei University, Xiamen, Fujian 361021, China
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3
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Kayastha BB, Kubo A, Burch-Konda J, Dohmen RL, McCoy JL, Rogers RR, Mares S, Bevere J, Huckaby A, Witt W, Peng S, Chaudhary B, Mohanty S, Barbier M, Cook G, Deng J, Patrauchan MA. EF-hand protein, EfhP, specifically binds Ca 2+ and mediates Ca 2+ regulation of virulence in a human pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Sci Rep 2022; 12:8791. [PMID: 35614085 PMCID: PMC9132961 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-12584-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Calcium (Ca2+) is well known as a second messenger in eukaryotes, where Ca2+ signaling controls life-sustaining cellular processes. Although bacteria produce the components required for Ca2+ signaling, little is known about the mechanisms of bacterial Ca2+ signaling. Previously, we have identified a putative Ca2+-binding protein EfhP (PA4107) with two canonical EF-hand motifs and reported that EfhP mediates Ca2+ regulation of virulence factors production and infectivity in Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a human pathogen causing life-threatening infections. Here, we show that EfhP selectively binds Ca2+ with 13.7 µM affinity, and that mutations at the +X and -Z positions within each or both EF-hand motifs abolished Ca2+ binding. We also show that the hydrophobicity of EfhP increased in a Ca2+-dependent manner, however no such response was detected in the mutated proteins. 15 N-NMR showed Ca2+-dependent chemical shifts in EfhP confirming Ca2+-binding triggered structural rearrangements in the protein. Deletion of efhP impaired P. aeruginosa survival in macrophages and virulence in vivo. Disabling EfhP Ca2+ binding abolished Ca2+ induction of pyocyanin production in vitro. These data confirm that EfhP selectively binds Ca2+, which triggers its structural changes required for the Ca2+ regulation of P. aeruginosa virulence, thus establishing the role of EfhP as a Ca2+ sensor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Biraj B Kayastha
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA
| | - Aya Kubo
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA
| | - Jacob Burch-Konda
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA
| | - Rosalie L Dohmen
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA
| | - Jacee L McCoy
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA
| | - Rendi R Rogers
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA
| | - Sergio Mares
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA
| | - Justin Bevere
- Vaccine Development Center at West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Cell Biology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Annalisa Huckaby
- Vaccine Development Center at West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Cell Biology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - William Witt
- Vaccine Development Center at West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Cell Biology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Shuxia Peng
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA
| | - Bharat Chaudhary
- Department of Chemistry, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA
| | - Smita Mohanty
- Department of Chemistry, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA
| | - Mariette Barbier
- Vaccine Development Center at West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Cell Biology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - Gabriel Cook
- Department of Chemistry, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA
| | - Junpeng Deng
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA
| | - Marianna A Patrauchan
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA.
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4
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Zong G, Fu J, Zhang P, Zhang W, Xu Y, Cao G, Zhang R. Use of elicitors to enhance or activate the antibiotic production in streptomyces. Crit Rev Biotechnol 2021; 42:1260-1283. [PMID: 34706600 DOI: 10.1080/07388551.2021.1987856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Streptomyces is the largest and most significant genus of Actinobacteria, comprising 961 species. These Gram-positive bacteria produce many versatile and important bioactive compounds; of these, antibiotics, specifically the enhancement or activation of their production, have received extensive research attention. Recently, various biotic and abiotic elicitors have been reported to modify the antibiotic metabolism of Streptomyces, which promotes the production of new antibiotics and bioactive metabolites for improvement in the yields of endogenous products. However, some elicitors that obviously contribute to secondary metabolite production have not yet received sufficient attention. In this study, we have reviewed the functions and mechanisms of chemicals, novel microbial metabolic elicitors, microbial interactions, enzymes, enzyme inhibitors, environmental factors, and novel combination methods regarding antibiotic production in Streptomyces. This review has aimed to identify potentially valuable elicitors for stimulating the production of latent antibiotics or enhancing the synthesis of subsistent antibiotics in Streptomyces. Future applications and challenges in the discovery of new antibiotics and enhancement of existing antibiotic production using elicitors are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gongli Zong
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology of Ministry of Education & School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China.,Biomedical Sciences College & Shandong Medicinal Biotechnology Centre, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji'nan, China
| | - Jiafang Fu
- Biomedical Sciences College & Shandong Medicinal Biotechnology Centre, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji'nan, China
| | - Peipei Zhang
- Biomedical Sciences College & Shandong Medicinal Biotechnology Centre, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji'nan, China
| | - Wenchi Zhang
- Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Yan Xu
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology of Ministry of Education & School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Guangxiang Cao
- Biomedical Sciences College & Shandong Medicinal Biotechnology Centre, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Ji'nan, China
| | - Rongzhen Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology of Ministry of Education & School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
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5
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Huang K, Zhang B, Chen Y, Wu ZM, Liu ZQ, Zheng YG. Analysis of the effects of different nitrogen sources and calcium on the production of amphotericin by Streptomyces nodosus based on comparative transcriptome. Biotechnol Appl Biochem 2021; 69:1489-1501. [PMID: 34252982 DOI: 10.1002/bab.2221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Streptomyces nodosus is known as the main manufacturer of amphotericin B (AmB), which is an effective antifungal drug. It is verified that the optimization of fermentation conditions and key growth factors have a great impact on the yield of AmB. The AmB production of S. nodosus in cotton-seed meal (CM) medium was 1.6 times than that of beef-paste medium. The transcriptome analysis was used to analyze the effects of different nitrogen media and calcium on S. nodosus. Related genes of the EMP and TCA pathways, such as phosphofructokinase, pyruvate dehydrogenase, and citrate synthase, were upregulated in CM medium. The expression level of the PKS modules of the amphotericin synthesis gene cluster in beef-paste medium was higher. Other functional genes, such as amphGH and amphRIV, have the advantage of expressing in CM medium. Ca2+ promoted the upregulation of genes in metabolic pathways such as EMP pathway (pyruvate dehydrogenase), TCA pathway (citrate synthase), and amphotericin synthesis genes (PKS modules). The expression of WhiB family genes SNOD_RS 13310 and SNOD_RS 17625 was positively correlated with Ca2+ concentration. In addition, in the presence of calcium, the expression level of Sec transport system genes of S. nodosus was lower.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Huang
- The National and Local Joint Engineering Research Center for Biomanufacturing of Chiral Chemicals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Synthesis of Zhejiang Province, College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China
| | - Bo Zhang
- The National and Local Joint Engineering Research Center for Biomanufacturing of Chiral Chemicals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Synthesis of Zhejiang Province, College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yu Chen
- The National and Local Joint Engineering Research Center for Biomanufacturing of Chiral Chemicals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Synthesis of Zhejiang Province, College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China
| | - Zhe-Ming Wu
- The National and Local Joint Engineering Research Center for Biomanufacturing of Chiral Chemicals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Synthesis of Zhejiang Province, College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China.,Zhejiang Tiantai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd. Taizhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Zhi-Qiang Liu
- The National and Local Joint Engineering Research Center for Biomanufacturing of Chiral Chemicals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Synthesis of Zhejiang Province, College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yu-Guo Zheng
- The National and Local Joint Engineering Research Center for Biomanufacturing of Chiral Chemicals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Synthesis of Zhejiang Province, College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China
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King MM, Kayastha BB, Franklin MJ, Patrauchan MA. Calcium Regulation of Bacterial Virulence. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2020; 1131:827-855. [PMID: 31646536 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-12457-1_33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Calcium (Ca2+) is a universal signaling ion, whose major informational role shaped the evolution of signaling pathways, enabling cellular communications and responsiveness to both the intracellular and extracellular environments. Elaborate Ca2+ regulatory networks have been well characterized in eukaryotic cells, where Ca2+ regulates a number of essential cellular processes, ranging from cell division, transport and motility, to apoptosis and pathogenesis. However, in bacteria, the knowledge on Ca2+ signaling is still fragmentary. This is complicated by the large variability of environments that bacteria inhabit with diverse levels of Ca2+. Yet another complication arises when bacterial pathogens invade a host and become exposed to different levels of Ca2+ that (1) are tightly regulated by the host, (2) control host defenses including immune responses to bacterial infections, and (3) become impaired during diseases. The invading pathogens evolved to recognize and respond to the host Ca2+, triggering the molecular mechanisms of adhesion, biofilm formation, host cellular damage, and host-defense resistance, processes enabling the development of persistent infections. In this review, we discuss: (1) Ca2+ as a determinant of a host environment for invading bacterial pathogens, (2) the role of Ca2+ in regulating main events of host colonization and bacterial virulence, and (3) the molecular mechanisms of Ca2+ signaling in bacterial pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle M King
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA
| | - Biraj B Kayastha
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA
| | - Michael J Franklin
- Department of Microbiology and Center for Biofilm Engineering, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA
| | - Marianna A Patrauchan
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA.
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FtsA-FtsZ interaction in Vibrio cholerae causes conformational change of FtsA resulting in inhibition of ATP hydrolysis and polymerization. Int J Biol Macromol 2019; 142:18-32. [PMID: 31790740 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.11.217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2019] [Revised: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Proper interaction between the divisome proteins FtsA and FtsZ is important for the bacterial cell division which is not well characterized till date. In this study, the objective was to understand the mechanism of FtsA-FtsZ interaction using full-length recombinant proteins. We cloned, over-expressed, purified and subsequently characterized FtsA of Vibrio cholerae (VcFtsA). We found that VcFtsA polymerization assembly was dependent on Ca2+ ions, which is unique among FtsA proteins reported until now. VcFtsA also showed ATPase activity and its assembly was ATP dependent. Binding parameters of the interaction between the two full-length proteins, VcFtsA, and VcFtsZ determined by fluorescence spectrophotometry yielded a Kd value of around 38 μM. The Kd value of the interaction was 3 μM when VcFtsA was in ATP bound state. We found that VcFtsZ after interacting with VcFtsA causes a change of secondary structure in the later one leading to loss of its ability to hydrolyze ATP, subsequently halting the VcFtsA polymerization. On the other hand, a double-mutant of VcFtsA (VcFtsA-D242E,R300E), that does not bind to VcFtsZ, polymerized in the presence of VcFtsZ. Though FtsA proteins among different organisms show 70-80% homology in their sequences, assembly of VcFtsA showed a difference in its regulatory processes.
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Calcium binding proteins and calcium signaling in prokaryotes. Cell Calcium 2014; 57:151-65. [PMID: 25555683 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceca.2014.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2014] [Revised: 12/08/2014] [Accepted: 12/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
With the continued increase of genomic information and computational analyses during the recent years, the number of newly discovered calcium binding proteins (CaBPs) in prokaryotic organisms has increased dramatically. These proteins contain sequences that closely resemble a variety of eukaryotic calcium (Ca(2+)) binding motifs including the canonical and pseudo EF-hand motifs, Ca(2+)-binding β-roll, Greek key motif and a novel putative Ca(2+)-binding domain, called the Big domain. Prokaryotic CaBPs have been implicated in diverse cellular activities such as division, development, motility, homeostasis, stress response, secretion, transport, signaling and host-pathogen interactions. However, the majority of these proteins are hypothetical, and only few of them have been studied functionally. The finding of many diverse CaBPs in prokaryotic genomes opens an exciting area of research to explore and define the role of Ca(2+) in organisms other than eukaryotes. This review presents the most recent developments in the field of CaBPs and novel advancements in the role of Ca(2+) in prokaryotes.
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