Staphylococcal entorotoxin B anchored exosome induces apoptosis in negative esterogen receptor breast cancer cells

Host and Pathogen-Directed Therapies against Microbial Infections Using Exosome- and Antimicrobial Peptide-derived Stem Cells with a Special look at Pulmonary Infections and Sepsis

Microbial diseases are a great threat to global health and cause considerable mortality and extensive economic losses each year. The medications for treating this group of diseases (antibiotics, antiviral, antifungal drugs, etc.) directly attack the pathogenic agents by recognizing the target molecules. However, it is necessary to note that excessive use of any of these drugs can lead to an increase in microbial resistance and infectious diseases. New therapeutic methods have been studied recently using emerging drugs such as mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes (MSC-Exos) and antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), which act based on two completely different strategies against pathogens including Host-Directed Therapy (HDT) and Pathogen-Directed Therapy (PDT), respectively. In the PDT approach, AMPs interact directly with pathogens to interrupt their intrusion, survival, and proliferation. These drugs interact directly with the cell membrane or intracellular components of pathogens and cause the death of pathogens or inhibit their replication. The mechanism of action of MSC-Exos in HDT is based on immunomodulation and regulation, promotion of tissue regeneration, and reduced host toxicity. This review studies the potential of mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes/ATPs therapeutic properties against microbial infectious diseases especially pulmonary infections and sepsis.

Extracellular Vesicle-Mediated Mitochondrial Reprogramming in Cancer

Simple Summary

Mitochondria are important organelles involved in several key cellular processes including energy production and cell death regulation. For this reason, it is unsurprising that mitochondrial function and structure are altered in several pathological states including cancer. Cancer cells present variate strategies to generate sufficient energy to sustain their high proliferation rates. These adaptative strategies can be mediated by extracellular signals such as extracellular vesicles. These vesicles can alter recipient cellular behavior by delivering their molecular cargo. This review explores the different EV-mediated mitochondrial reprogramming mechanisms supporting cancer survival and progression.

Abstract

Altered metabolism is a defining hallmark of cancer. Metabolic adaptations are often linked to a reprogramming of the mitochondria due to the importance of these organelles in energy production and biosynthesis. Cancer cells present heterogeneous metabolic phenotypes that can be modulated by signals originating from the tumor microenvironment. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are recognized as key players in intercellular communications and mediate many of the hallmarks of cancer via the delivery of their diverse biological cargo molecules. Firstly, this review introduces the most characteristic changes that the EV-biogenesis machinery and mitochondria undergo in the context of cancer. Then, it focuses on the EV-driven processes which alter mitochondrial structure, composition, and function to provide a survival advantage to cancer cells in the context of the hallmarks of cancers, such as altered metabolic strategies, migration and invasiveness, immune surveillance escape, and evasion of apoptosis. Finally, it explores the as yet untapped potential of targeting mitochondria using EVs as delivery vectors as a promising cancer therapeutic strategy.

Extracellular Vesicles (Exosomes) as Immunosuppressive Mediating Variables in Tumor and Chronic Inflammatory Microenvironments

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles released by most of the eukaryotic cells. Exosomes’ components include proteins, lipids, microRNA, circular RNA, long noncoding RNA, DNA, etc. Exosomes may carry both pro and anti-inflammatory cargos; however, exosomes are predominantly filled with immunosuppressive cargos such as enzymes and microRNAs in chronic inflammation. Exosomes have surfaced as essential participants in physiological and pathological intercellular communication. Exosomes may prevent or promote the formation of an aggressive tumor and chronic inflammatory microenvironments, thus influencing tumor and chronic inflammatory progression as well as clinical prognosis. Exosomes, which transmit many signals that may either enhance or constrain immunosuppression of lymphoid and myeloid cell populations in tumors, are increasingly becoming recognized as significant mediators of immune regulation in cancer. In this review, we outline the function of exosomes as mediators of immunosuppression in tumor and chronic inflammatory microenvironments, with the aim to improve cancer therapy.

Exosomes and cancer: from molecular mechanisms to clinical applications

Exosomes are extracellular nanovesicles secreted from almost all types of normal and cancer cells. Collective evidence suggests that exosomes participate in cell-cell communication via transmitting their cargo, including nucleic acids, proteins, and metabolites to recipient cells. Tumor-derived exosomes (TEXs) play prominent roles in the regulation of molecular pathways in malignancies. Internalization of exosomes by tumor cells affects cellular pathways and several cancer hallmarks, including reprogramming of stromal cells, modulating immune responses, reconstructing extracellular matrix architecture, or even endowing tumor cells with drug features resistance. The unique biogenesis pathways of exosomes, their composition, low immunogenicity, and nontoxicity, together with their ability to target tumor cells, bring them up as an attractive vesicles for cancer therapy. Thus, understanding the molecular mechanisms of exosomes' participation in tumorigenesis will be critical for the next generation of cancer therapeutics. This review aims to summarize the exosomes' roles in different mechanisms underlying cancer progression for the rational design of tailored strategies against this illness. The present study also highlights the new findings on using these smart vesicles as therapeutic targets and potential biomarkers. Recent advances in exosome biology will open up new, more effective, less invasive, and more individualized clinical applications for treating cancer patients.

The bioactivity of colostrum and milk exosomes of high, average, and low immune responder cows on human intestinal epithelial cells

Bovine milk contains bioactive components that are nutritionally and immunologically important to calves and humans. Dairy cows classified as high (H) immune responders using the patented high immune response technology have higher concentrations of immunoglobulin and specific antibodies in sera and milk compared with average (A) and low (L) responders. MicroRNA post-transcriptionally regulate expression of milk bioactive components and are enriched in extracellular vesicles known as exosomes, which protect them from degradation. The bioactivity of colostrum and milk exosomes at the human intestinal epithelial barrier remains to be explored, particularly in the context of the high immune response technology. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the functional role of bovine milk exosomes compared with colostrum exosomes from H, A, and L responders at the intestinal interface using human colorectal adenocarcinoma epithelial (Caco-2) cells. Exosomes were isolated by successive ultracentrifugation and confirmed by western blot analysis for the presence of common exosomal proteins (CD9, CD63, and heat shock protein 70). Fluorescent labeling of exosomes using PKH67 dye confirmed their uptake by Caco-2 cells, demonstrating their potential bioavailability. The MTT assays showed that colostrum and milk exosomes maintain Caco-2 metabolic activity and are not cytotoxic to these cells. Specifically, metabolic activity after co-incubation with colostrum and milk exosomes from H responder cows was significantly greater than after co-incubation with exosomes from L responders. Caspase 3 activity, an indicator of apoptosis, was significantly lower after co-incubation of Caco-2 cells with milk exosomes compared with colostrum exosomes, suggesting that unlike colostrum exosomes, particularly those from L responders, milk exosomes do not activate the caspase 3 pathway in Caco-2 cells. This study helps us better understand the functional importance of colostrum and milk exosomes from dairy cows and emphasizes differences in functionality among exosomes from H, A, and L immune responders.

Emerging Role of Extracellular Vesicles in Immune Regulation and Cancer Progression

Simple Summary

Accumulating evidence has reported that extracellular vesicles secreted by different tumor microenvironment cells can interfere with the host immune system. These vesicles transmit the signals in the tumor microenvironment that affect the proliferation, apoptosis, activation, and, metabolism of immune cells such as dendritic cells, T cells, macrophages, and natural killer cells, creating a pro-tumoral environment for tumor progression and survival. In this review, we summarize the recent literature on the function of extracellular vesicles derived from tumor cells and immune cells in regulating the critical processes associated with cancer progression. Besides, we also provide insights on how the extracellular vesicles are employed as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers and drug carriers in cancer.

Abstract

The development of effective therapies for cancer treatment requires a better understanding of the tumor extracellular environment and a dynamic interaction between tumor cells, the cells of the immune system, and the tumor stroma. Increasing evidence suggests that extracellular vesicles play an important role in this interaction. Extracellular vesicles are nanometer-sized membrane-bound vesicles secreted by various types of cells that facilitate intracellular communication by transferring proteins, various lipids, and nucleic acids, especially miRNAs, between cells. Extracellular vesicles play discrete roles in the immune regulatory functions, such as antigen presentation, and activation or suppression of immune cells. Achieving therapeutic intervention through targeting of extracellular vesicles is a crucial area of research now. Thus, a deeper knowledge of exosome biology and the molecular mechanism of immune regulation is likely to provide significant insight into therapeutic intervention utilizing extracellular vesicles to combat this dreadful disease. This review describes the recent updates on immune regulation by extracellular vesicles in cancer progression and possible use in cancer therapy.

Exosomes as Actively Targeted Nanocarriers for Cancer Therapy

In recent years, it has been found that exosomes can be used as nanocarriers, which can be used in the treatment of tumors by carrying contents. The exosomes are derived from the secretion of the organism's own cells and are characterized by a phospholipid bilayer structure and a small particle size. These characteristics guarantee that the exosomes can carry a wide range of tumor drugs, deliver the drug to the cancer, and reduce or eliminate the tumor drug band. The toxic side effects were significantly eliminated; meanwhile, the therapeutic effects of the drug on the tumor were remarkably improved. This paper reviewed the strategies and drugs presented by different scholars for the treatment of tumors based on the drugs carried by exosomes.

Early cleavage of preimplantation embryos is regulated by tRNAGln-TTG-derived small RNAs present in mature spermatozoa

tRNA-derived small RNAs (tsRNAs) from spermatozoa could act as acquired epigenetic factors and contribute to offspring phenotypes. However, the roles of specific tsRNAs in early embryo development remain to be elucidated. Here, using pigs as a research model, we probed the tsRNA dynamics during spermatogenesis and sperm maturation and demonstrated the delivery of tsRNAs from semen-derived exosomes to spermatozoa. By microinjection of antisense sequences into in vitro fertilized oocytes and subsequent single-cell RNA-seq of embryos, we identified a specific functional tsRNA group (termed here Gln-TTGs) that participate in the early cleavage of porcine preimplantation embryos, probably by regulating cell cycle-associated genes and retrotransposons. We conclude that specific tsRNAs present in mature spermatozoa play significant roles in preimplantation embryo development.

Breast cancer targeted/ therapeutic with double and triple fusion Immunotoxins

Target-specific transport of therapeutic agents holds promise to increase the efficacy of cancer treatment by decreasing injury to normal tissues and post treatment problems. HER2 is a tumor cell surface marker that is expressed in 25-30 % of breast cancer patients. The significant role of HER2 in cancer development and its biological feature makes it a highly appealing goal for the therapeutic treatment of cancer targeted therapy using HER2 monoclonal antibody. This approach is currently used as a special treatment against breast cancer in some research. In the present study, HER2 monoclonal antibody (mAb), (Herceptin) fused to PE38 by recombinant DNA technology and a new recombinant IT was developed. The scFv(Herceptin)-PE-STXA and scFv(Herceptin)-PE fusions cloned in pET28a and recombinant protein expression was carried out and then the proteins were purified. MCF-7 and SKBR-3 cells were used as HER2-negative and HER2-positive breast cancer cells, respectively. The cytotoxicity of its evaluated using MTT assay. The cell ELISA was used to determine the binding ability of immunotoxins (ITs) to the cell receptor and internalization and apoptosis were also assessed. The results revealed that cell cytotoxicity occurred in SKBR-3 cells in a dose-dependent manner but not in MCF-7 cells. It is possible that this ITs can attach to HER2-positive breast cancer cells and then, internalize and eradicate cancer cells by apoptosis. Here, we concluded that the recombinant ITs have therapeutic potential against HER2-positive breast cancer.

Exosomes as Carriers for Antitumor Therapy

Exosomes are bilayer vesicles with particle sizes between 50 and 150 nm. Owing to their bilayer membrane structure, cell-to-cell communication, and good absorbability, exosomes are increasingly used as carriers for drug delivery through phospholipid membrane structures to lesion sites with enhanced targeting. Exosome sources and drug-loading methods are important factors affecting their use as drug carriers. There are various ways to pack species in exosomes, and researchers are constantly seeking new and improved approaches. In both in vivo and in vitro evaluations, exosomal vectors have achieved good antitumor efficacies. Despite the importance of exosomes as drug delivery systems with accurate targeting ability and biocompatibility, improvements are needed to facilitate their widespread clinical use. This review focuses on the preparation of exosomes as carriers and their utilization in antitumor research.

Cancer-Derived Exosomes as Effectors of Key Inflammation-Related Players

Exosomes, a category of small lipid bilayer extracellular vesicles that are naturally secreted by many cells (both healthy and diseased), carry cargo made up of proteins, lipids, DNAs, and RNAs; all of which are functional when transferred to their recipient cells. Numerous studies have demonstrated the powerful role that exosomes play in the mediation of cell-to-cell communication to induce a pro-tumoral environment to encourage tumor progression and survival. Recently, considerable interest has developed in regard to the role that exosomes play in immunity; with studies demonstrating the ability of exosomes to either metabolically alter immune players such as dendritic cells, T cells, macrophages, and natural killer cells. In this review, we summarize the recent literature on the function of exosomes in regulating a key process that has long been associated with the progression of cancer-inflammation and immunity.

Exosomes in cancer: small vesicular transporters for cancer progression and metastasis, biomarkers in cancer therapeutics

Cancer progression is a polygenic procedure in which the exosomes can function as substantial roles. Exosomes are tiny, phospholipid bilayer membrane nanovesicles of endocytic derivation with a diameter of 40-100 nm. These nanovesicles can transport bioactive molecules containing mRNAs, proteins, DNA fragments, and non-coding RNAs from a donor cell to recipient cells, and cause the alteration in genetic and epigenetic factors and reprogramming of the target cells. Many diverse cell types such as mesenchymal cells, immune cells, and cancer cells can induce the release of exosomes. Increasing evidence illustrated that the exosomes derived from tumor cells might trigger the tumor initiation, tumor cell growth and progression, metastasis, and drug resistance. The secreted nanovesicles of exosomes can play significant roles in cells communicate via shuttling the nucleic acid molecules and proteins to target cells and tissues. In this review, we discussed multiple mechanisms related to biogenesis, load, and shuttle of the exosomes. Also, we illustrated the diverse roles of exosomes in several types of human cancer development, tumor immunology, angiogenesis, and metastasis. The exosomes may act as the promising biomarkers for the prognosis of various types of cancers which suggested a new pathway for anti-tumor therapeutic of these nanovesicles and promoted exosome-based cancer for clinical diagnostic and remedial procedures.

Roles of Extracellular Vesicles in Metastatic Breast Cancer

Cells can secrete extracellular vesicles (EVs) to communicate with neighboring or distant cells by EVs which are composed of a lipid bilayer containing transmembrane proteins and enclosing cytosolic proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Breast Cancer is the most frequently diagnosed malignancy with more than 1 million new cases each year and ranks the leading cause of cancer mortality in women worldwide. In this review, we will discuss recent progresses of the roles and mechanisms of cancer-derived EVs in metastatic breast cancer, with a special attention on tumor microenvironment construction, progression, and chemo/radiotherapy responses. This review also covers EV roles as biomarker and therapeutic target in clinical application.

Concise Review: Crosstalk of Mesenchymal Stroma/Stem-Like Cells with Cancer Cells Provides Therapeutic Potential

Various direct and indirect cellular interactions between multi-functional mesenchymal stroma/stem-like cells (MSCs) and cancer cells contribute to increasing plasticity within the tumor tissue and its microenvironment. Direct and tight communication between MSC and cancer cells is based on membrane protein interactions and the exchange of large plasma membrane fragments also known as trogocytosis. An ultimate but rare direct interaction resumes in fusion of these two cellular partners resulting in the formation of new cancer hybrid cell populations. Alternatively, indirect interactions are displayed by the release of membranous vesicle-encapsulated microRNAs and proteins or soluble components such as molecular growth factors, hormones, chemo-/cytokines, and metabolites. Released single molecules as well as multivesicular bodies including exosomes and microvesicles can form local concentration gradients within the tumor microenvironment and are incorporated not only by adjacent neighboring cells but also affect distant target cells. The present Review will focus on vesicle-mediated indirect communication and on cancer cell fusion with direct contact between MSC and cancer cells. These different types of interaction are accompanied by functional interference and mutual acquisition of new cellular properties. Consequently, alterations in cancer cell functionalities paralleled by the capability to reorganize the tumor stroma can trigger changes in metastatic behavior and promote retrodifferentiation to develop new cancer stem-like cells. However, exosomes and microvesicles acting over long distances may also provide a tool with therapeutic potential when loaded with anti-tumor cargo. Stem Cells 2018;36:951-968.

The inhibitory impacts of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG-derived extracellular vesicles on the growth of hepatic cancer cells

Bacterial extracellular vesicles (EVs) have come forth into notice as possible important agent to mediate host-pathogen interactions. In this scientific research, the authors have tried to find out the effect of EVs derived from Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LDEVs) on the apoptosis induction in HepG2 cell line. The EVs were purified from the conditioned medium of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG using ultrafiltration and confirmed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The HepG2 cells were treated with different concentrations of purified LDEVs and the cytotoxicity and their effects on the expression of bcl-2 and bax genes were assessed by the MTT assay and semi-quantitative RT-PCR, respectively. The MTT assay showed that only 100 μg/ml of LDEVs had a significant cytotoxic effect on cancer cells (p < 0.05). The apoptotic index (bax/bcl2 expression ratio) was significantly increased after treating with 50 and 100 μg/ml LDEVs (p < 0.05). Increased bax/bcl-2 ratio was led to cancer cell death.

Salivary biomarkers in cancer detection

Cancer is the second most common cause of death in the USA. Its symptoms are often not specific and absent, until the tumors have already metastasized. Therefore, there is an urgent demand for developing rapid, highly accurate and noninvasive tools for cancer screening, early detection, diagnostics, staging and prognostics. Saliva as a multi-constituent oral fluid comprises secretions from the major and minor salivary glands, extensively supplied by blood. Molecules such as DNAs, RNAs, proteins, metabolites, and microbiota, present in blood, could be also found in saliva. Recently, salivary diagnostics has drawn significant attention for the detection of specific biomarkers, since the sample collection and processing are simple, cost-effective, and precise and do not cause patient discomfort. Here, we review recent salivary candidate biomarkers for systemic cancers by dividing them according to their origin into: genomic, transcriptomic, proteomic, metabolomic and microbial types.

Extracellular vesicles in breast cancer drug resistance and their clinical application

Drug resistance currently represents a daunting challenge in the treatment of breast cancer patients. With an increased understanding of the underlying mechanisms of drug resistance, the role of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in the development of chemo-insensitivity attracts extensive attention. EVs are membrane-limited, cell type-dependent vesicles that are secreted by normal or malignant cells. EVs comprise various types of contents, including genetic cargoes, proteins, and specific lipids. The characteristics of the contents determine their specific functions in not only physiological but also pathological conditions. It has been demonstrated that miRNAs and proteins in EVs are strongly correlated with breast cancer drug resistance. Additionally, they may exert an influence on de novo and acquired resistance bioprocesses. With the advances in extraction and detection technologies, EVs have also been employed to precisely diagnose and predict the outcome of therapy in breast cancer. On the other hand, they can also be exploited as efficient delivery system in future anticancer applications. In this paper, we summarized relative mechanisms concerning the relationship between EVs and breast cancer drug resistance, and then, we provide up-to-date research advances in the clinical application of EVs.

Tagging staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB) with TGFaL3 for breast cancer therapy

Recent research has attempted to direct superantigens towards tumors by means of tumor-targeted superantigen (TTS) strategy. In this study, we explored the antitumor property of TTS by fusing the third loop of transforming growth factor α (TGFαL3) to staphylococcal enterotoxin type B (SEB) and investigated the possibility of the therapeutic application of TGFαL3-SEB as a novel antitumor candidate in mice bearing breast cancer. Treatment was performed through intratumoral and intravenous injection of TGFαL3-SEB. Tumor size/volume, long-term survival, and cytokine secretion were assessed. In addition, the toxicity of each treatment on liver and kidneys was examined. Our results indicated that the relative tumor volume significantly increased in the mice receiving intratumoral TGFaL3-SEB (p < 0.05). Surprisingly, 5 out of the 14 mice were cleared from the tumor thoroughly in 10-25 days after intratumoral administration of TGFaL3-SEB. Quantification of cytokines clearly showed that the mice receiving intratumoral SEB significantly secreted higher interferon γ (IFN-γ) and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) compared with the other groups (p < 0.05). The antitumor effect was followed by inhibition of cell proliferation (Ki-67) and micro vascularization (CD31). The highest and lowest levels of tumor necrosis were observed in the intratumoral administration of TGFαL3-SEB (85 %) and PBS (14 %), respectively. Intratumoral injection of TGFαL3-SEB increased the lifespan of the mice so 37.5 % of them could survive for more than 6 months (p < 0.05). Overall, our findings indicated that intratumoral administration of TGFαL3-SEB effectively inhibited the growth of breast tumors through induction of necrosis and suppressing proliferation and angiogenesis without systemic toxicity.

Texosome-based drug delivery system for cancer therapy: from past to present

Rising worldwide cancer incidence and resistance to current anti-cancer drugs necessitate the need for new pharmaceutical compounds and drug delivery system. Malfunction of the immune system, particularly in the tumor microenvironment, causes tumor growth and enhances tumor progression. Thus, cancer immunotherapy can be an appropriate approach to provoke the systemic immune system to combat tumor expansion. Texosomes, which are endogenous nanovesicles released by all tumor cells, contribute to cell-cell communication and modify the phenotypic features of recipient cells due to the texosomes' ability to transport biological components. For this reason, texosome-based delivery system can be a valuable strategy for therapeutic purposes. To improve the pharmaceutical behavior of this system and to facilitate its use in medical applications, biotechnology approaches and mimetic techniques have been utilized. In this review, we present the development history of texosome-based delivery systems and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each system.

The Role of Exosomes in Breast Cancer

BACKGROUND

Although it has been long realized that eukaryotic cells release complex vesicular structures into their environment, only in recent years has it been established that these entities are not merely junk or debris, but that they are tailor-made specialized minimaps of their cell of origin and of both physiological and pathological relevance. These exosomes and microvesicles (ectosomes), collectively termed extracellular vesicles (EVs), are often defined and subgrouped first and foremost according to size and proposed origin (exosomes approximately 30-120 nm, endosomal origin; microvesicles 120-1000 nm, from the cell membrane). There is growing interest in elucidating the relevance and roles of EVs in cancer.

CONTENT

Much of the pioneering work on EVs in cancer has focused on breast cancer, possibly because breast cancer is a leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. This review provides an in-depth summary of such studies, supporting key roles for exosomes and other EVs in breast cancer cell invasion and metastasis, stem cell stimulation, apoptosis, immune system modulation, and anti-cancer drug resistance. Exosomes as diagnostic, prognostic, and/or predictive biomarkers and their potential use in the development of therapeutics are discussed.

SUMMARY

Although not fully elucidated, the involvement of exosomes in breast cancer development, progression, and resistance is becoming increasingly apparent from preclinical and clinical studies, with mounting interest in the potential exploitation of these vesicles for breast cancer biomarkers, as drug delivery systems, and in the development of future novel breast cancer therapies.

Extracellular Vesicles: Role in Inflammatory Responses and Potential Uses in Vaccination in Cancer and Infectious Diseases

Almost all cells and organisms release membrane structures containing proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids called extracellular vesicles (EVs), which have a wide range of functions concerning intercellular communication and signaling events. Recently, the characterization and understanding of their biological role have become a main research area due to their potential role in vaccination, as biomarkers antigens, early diagnostic tools, and therapeutic applications. Here, we will overview the recent advances and studies of Evs shed by tumor cells, bacteria, parasites, and fungi, focusing on their inflammatory role and their potential use in vaccination and diagnostic of cancer and infectious diseases.

Overexpression of Metastatic Related MicroRNAs, Mir-335 and Mir-10b, by Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B in the Metastatic Breast Cancer Cell Line

PURPOSE

One of the advanced cancer therapy strategies is immune-stimulating compound based immunotherapy Staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB) is one of the potent superantigens, which can efficiently activate antitumor immune response to eradicate tumor growth and inhibit metastasis. Herein, we evaluated the effect of SEB on the expression of two master microRNAs, mir-335 and mir-10b, involved in metastasis.

METHODS

A metastatic breast cancer cell line MDA-MB231was treated with four different concentrations of SEB, including 10, 10(2), 10(3) and 10(4) ng/ml, for 24 and 48 hours. To identify the cytotoxic effect of SEB, treated cells were examined by MTT assay. The stem loop RT-PCR (TaqMan) was used to analyze the mir-335 and mir-10b expression.

RESULTS

RESULTS showed that SEB significantly increased the expression of mir-335 both after 24 and 48 hours (pv < 0.001 and pv < 0.05, respectively). No significant differences were found in the mir-10b expression.

CONCLUSION

Moreover, our findings demonstrated no cytotoxic effect of SEB on the treated cells. Our results suggest that SEB probably induces its anti-metastatic effect via the expression regulation of the main genes which contributes to metastasis.

Exosome analysis: a promising biomarker system with special attention to saliva

Today, exosome-related studies have become a focus in science and technology. Recently, three scientists won the Nobel Prize for determining the mechanisms of exosomal transport, making exosomes a promising biomarker system for disease diagnosis and treatment. This review provides a general introduction of exosomes and explores the recent progress on the function, application, isolation, and identification of exosomes as biomarkers in blood and other body fluids, especially in saliva. Detailed information of exosomal proteins and RNAs is discussed in the paper because of their ability to determine the function of exosomes. Due to their noninvasive assessment for quick and convenient diagnosis of diseases, salivary exosomes may well be promising biomarkers.