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Protic D, Hagerman R. State-of-the-art therapies for fragile X syndrome. Dev Med Child Neurol 2024; 66:863-871. [PMID: 38385885 PMCID: PMC11144093 DOI: 10.1111/dmcn.15885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Revised: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 02/23/2024]
Abstract
Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is a neurodevelopmental disorder caused by a full mutation (> 200 CGG repeats) in the FMR1 gene. FXS is the leading cause of inherited intellectual disabilities and the most commonly known genetic cause of autism spectrum disorder. Children with FXS experience behavioral and sleep problems, anxiety, inattention, learning difficulties, and speech and language delays. There are no approved medications for FXS; however, there are several interventions and treatments aimed at managing the symptoms and improving the quality of life of individuals with FXS. A combination of non-pharmacological therapies and pharmacotherapy is currently the most effective treatment for FXS. Currently, several targeted treatments, such as metformin, sertraline, and cannabidiol, can be used by clinicians to treat FXS. Gene therapy is rapidly developing and holds potential as a prospective treatment option. Soon its efficacy and safety in patients with FXS will be demonstrated. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: Targeted treatment of fragile X syndrome (FXS) is the best current therapeutic approach. Gene therapy holds potential as a prospective treatment for FXS in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dragana Protic
- Department of Pharmacology, Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
- Fragile X Clinic, Special Hospital for Cerebral Palsy and Developmental Neurology, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Randi Hagerman
- Medical Investigation of Neurodevelopmental Disorders Institute, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA, USA
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2
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Jonak CR, Assad SA, Garcia TA, Sandhu MS, Rumschlag JA, Razak KA, Binder DK. Phenotypic analysis of multielectrode array EEG biomarkers in developing and adult male Fmr1 KO mice. Neurobiol Dis 2024; 195:106496. [PMID: 38582333 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2024.106496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2024] [Revised: 04/03/2024] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 04/08/2024] Open
Abstract
Fragile X Syndrome (FXS) is a leading known genetic cause of intellectual disability with symptoms that include increased anxiety and social and sensory processing deficits. Recent electroencephalographic (EEG) studies in humans with FXS have identified neural oscillation deficits that include increased resting state gamma power, increased amplitude of auditory evoked potentials, and reduced phase locking of sound-evoked gamma oscillations. Similar EEG phenotypes are present in mouse models of FXS, but very little is known about the development of such abnormal responses. In the current study, we employed a 30-channel mouse multielectrode array (MEA) system to record and analyze resting and stimulus-evoked EEG signals in male P21 and P91 WT and Fmr1 KO mice. This led to several novel findings. First, P91, but not P21, Fmr1 KO mice have significantly increased resting EEG power in the low- and high-gamma frequency bands. Second, both P21 and P91 Fmr1 KO mice have markedly attenuated inter-trial phase coherence (ITPC) to spectrotemporally dynamic auditory stimuli as well as to 40 Hz and 80 Hz auditory steady-state response (ASSR) stimuli. This suggests abnormal temporal processing from early development that may lead to abnormal speech and language function in FXS. Third, we found hemispheric asymmetry of fast temporal processing in the mouse auditory cortex in WT but not Fmr1 KO mice. Together, these findings define a set of EEG phenotypes in young and adult mice that can serve as translational targets for genetic and pharmacological manipulation in phenotypic rescue studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carrie R Jonak
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Riverside, CA, United States of America
| | - Samantha A Assad
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Riverside, CA, United States of America
| | - Terese A Garcia
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Riverside, CA, United States of America
| | - Manbir S Sandhu
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Riverside, CA, United States of America
| | - Jeffrey A Rumschlag
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, United States of America
| | - Khaleel A Razak
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of California, Riverside, CA, United States of America; Department of Psychology, University of California, Riverside, CA, United States of America
| | - Devin K Binder
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Riverside, CA, United States of America; Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of California, Riverside, CA, United States of America.
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3
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Ethridge LE, Pedapati EV, Schmitt LM, Norris JE, Auger E, De Stefano LA, Sweeney JA, Erickson CA. Validating brain activity measures as reliable indicators of individual diagnostic group and genetically mediated sub-group membership Fragile X Syndrome. RESEARCH SQUARE 2024:rs.3.rs-3849272. [PMID: 38313274 PMCID: PMC10836101 DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3849272/v1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2024]
Abstract
Recent failures translating preclinical behavioral treatment effects to positive clinical trial results in humans with Fragile X Syndrome (FXS) support refocusing attention on biological pathways and associated measures, such as electroencephalography (EEG), with strong translational potential and small molecule target engagement. This study utilized guided machine learning to test promising translational EEG measures (resting power and auditory chirp oscillatory variables) in a large heterogeneous sample of individuals with FXS to identify best performing EEG variables for reliably separating individuals with FXS, and genetically-mediated subgroups within FXS, from typically developing controls. Best performing variables included resting relative frontal theta power, all combined whole-head resting power bands, posterior peak alpha frequency (PAF), combined PAF across all measured regions, combined theta, alpha, and gamma power during the chirp, and all combined chirp oscillatory variables. Sub-group analyses best discriminated non-mosaic FXS males via whole-head resting relative power (AUC = .9250), even with data reduced to a 20-channel clinical montage. FXS females were nearly perfectly discriminated by combined theta, alpha, and gamma power during the chirp (AUC = .9522). Results support use of resting and auditory oscillatory tasks to reliably identify neural deficit in FXS, and to identify specific translational targets for genetically-mediated sub-groups, supporting potential points for stratification.
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Chadwick W, Angulo-Herrera I, Cogram P, Deacon RJM, Mason DJ, Brown D, Roberts I, O’Donovan DJ, Tranfaglia MR, Guilliams T, Thompson NT. A novel combination treatment for fragile X syndrome predicted using computational methods. Brain Commun 2024; 6:fcad353. [PMID: 38226317 PMCID: PMC10789243 DOI: 10.1093/braincomms/fcad353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2023] [Revised: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Fragile X syndrome is a neurodevelopmental disorder caused by silencing of the fragile X messenger ribonucleotide gene. Patients display a wide spectrum of symptoms ranging from intellectual and learning disabilities to behavioural challenges including autism spectrum disorder. In addition to this, patients also display a diversity of symptoms due to mosaicism. These factors make fragile X syndrome a difficult syndrome to manage and suggest that a single targeted therapeutic approach cannot address all the symptoms. To this end, we utilized Healx's data-driven drug discovery platform to identify a treatment strategy to address the wide range of diverse symptoms among patients. Computational methods identified the combination of ibudilast and gaboxadol as a treatment for several pathophysiological targets that could potentially reverse multiple symptoms associated with fragile X syndrome. Ibudilast is an approved broad-spectrum phosphodiesterase inhibitor, selective against both phosphodiesterase 4 and phosphodiesterase 10, and has demonstrated to have several beneficial effects in the brain. Gaboxadol is a GABAA receptor agonist, selective against the delta subunit, which has previously displayed encouraging results in a fragile X syndrome clinical trial. Alterations in GABA and cyclic adenosine monophosphate metabolism have long since been associated with the pathophysiology of fragile X syndrome; however, targeting both pathways simultaneously has never been investigated. Both drugs have a good safety and tolerability profile in the clinic making them attractive candidates for repurposing. We set out to explore whether the combination of ibudilast and gaboxadol could demonstrate therapeutic efficacy in a fragile X syndrome mouse model. We found that daily treatment with ibudilast significantly enhanced the ability of fragile X syndrome mice to perform a number of different cognitive assays while gaboxadol treatment improved behaviours such as hyperactivity, aggression, stereotypy and anxiety. Importantly, when ibudilast and gaboxadol were co-administered, the cognitive deficits as well as the aforementioned behaviours were rescued. Moreover, this combination treatment showed no evidence of tolerance, and no adverse effects were reported following chronic dosing. This work demonstrates for the first time that by targeting multiple pathways, with a combination treatment, we were able to rescue more phenotypes in a fragile X syndrome mouse model than either ibudilast or gaboxadol could achieve as monotherapies. This combination treatment approach holds promise for addressing the wide spectrum of diverse symptoms in this heterogeneous patient population and may have therapeutic potential for idiopathic autism.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Patricia Cogram
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Science, Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity (IEB), University of Chile, Santiago 7800024, Chile
- Center for Neural Circuit Mapping, UCI, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, CA 92617, USA
| | - Robert J M Deacon
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Science, Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity (IEB), University of Chile, Santiago 7800024, Chile
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Westmark PR, Gholston AK, Swietlik TJ, Maganti RK, Westmark CJ. Ketogenic Diet Affects Sleep Architecture in C57BL/6J Wild Type and Fragile X Mice. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:14460. [PMID: 37833907 PMCID: PMC10572443 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241914460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Revised: 09/15/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Nearly half of children with fragile X syndrome experience sleep problems including trouble falling asleep and frequent nighttime awakenings. The goals here were to assess sleep-wake cycles in mice in response to Fmr1 genotype and a dietary intervention that reduces hyperactivity. Electroencephalography (EEG) results were compared with published rest-activity patterns to determine if actigraphy is a viable surrogate for sleep EEG. Specifically, sleep-wake patterns in adult wild type and Fmr1KO littermate mice were recorded after EEG electrode implantation and the recordings manually scored for vigilance states. The data indicated that Fmr1KO mice exhibited sleep-wake patterns similar to wild type littermates when maintained on a control purified ingredient diet. Treatment with a high-fat, low-carbohydrate ketogenic diet increased the percentage of non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep in both wild type and Fmr1KO mice during the dark cycle, which corresponded to decreased activity levels. Treatment with a ketogenic diet flattened diurnal sleep periodicity in both wild type and Fmr1KO mice. Differences in several sleep microstructure outcomes (number and length of sleep and wake bouts) supported the altered sleep states in response to a ketogenic diet and were correlated with altered rest-activity cycles. While actigraphy may be a less expensive, reduced labor surrogate for sleep EEG during the dark cycle, daytime resting in mice did not correlate with EEG sleep states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela R. Westmark
- Department of Neurology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA; (P.R.W.); (A.K.G.); (T.J.S.); (R.K.M.)
| | - Aaron K. Gholston
- Department of Neurology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA; (P.R.W.); (A.K.G.); (T.J.S.); (R.K.M.)
- Molecular Environmental Toxicology Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Timothy J. Swietlik
- Department of Neurology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA; (P.R.W.); (A.K.G.); (T.J.S.); (R.K.M.)
| | - Rama K. Maganti
- Department of Neurology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA; (P.R.W.); (A.K.G.); (T.J.S.); (R.K.M.)
| | - Cara J. Westmark
- Department of Neurology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA; (P.R.W.); (A.K.G.); (T.J.S.); (R.K.M.)
- Molecular Environmental Toxicology Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA
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Saraf TS, McGlynn RP, Bhatavdekar OM, Booth RG, Canal CE. FPT, a 2-Aminotetralin, Is a Potent Serotonin 5-HT 1A, 5-HT 1B, and 5-HT 1D Receptor Agonist That Modulates Cortical Electroencephalogram Activity in Adult Fmr1 Knockout Mice. ACS Chem Neurosci 2022; 13:3629-3640. [PMID: 36473166 PMCID: PMC10364582 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.2c00574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
There are no approved medicines for fragile X syndrome (FXS), a monogenic, neurodevelopmental disorder. Electroencephalogram (EEG) studies show alterations in resting-state cortical EEG spectra, such as increased gamma-band power, in patients with FXS that are also observed in Fmr1 knockout models of FXS, offering putative biomarkers for drug discovery. Genes encoding serotonin receptors (5-HTRs), including 5-HT1A, 5-HT1B, and 5-HT1DRs, are differentially expressed in FXS, providing a rationale for investigating them as pharmacotherapeutic targets. Previously we reported pharmacological activity and preclinical neurotherapeutic effects in Fmr1 knockout mice of an orally active 2-aminotetralin, (S)-5-(2'-fluorophenyl)-N,N-dimethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalen-2-amine (FPT). FPT is a potent (low nM), high-efficacy partial agonist at 5-HT1ARs and a potent, low-efficacy partial agonist at 5-HT7Rs. Here we report new observations that FPT also has potent and efficacious agonist activity at human 5-HT1B and 5-HT1DRs. FPT's Ki values at 5-HT1B and 5-HT1DRs were <5 nM, but it had nil activity (>10 μM Ki) at 5-HT1FRs. We tested the effects of FPT (5.6 mg/kg, subcutaneous) on EEG recorded above the somatosensory and auditory cortices in freely moving, adult Fmr1 knockout and control mice. Consistent with previous reports, we observed significantly increased relative gamma power in untreated or vehicle-treated male and female Fmr1 knockout mice from recordings above the left somatosensory cortex (LSSC). In addition, we observed sex effects on EEG power. FPT did not eliminate the genotype difference in relative gamma power from the LSSC. FPT, however, robustly decreased relative alpha power in the LSSC and auditory cortex, with more pronounced effects in Fmr1 KO mice. Similarly, FPT decreased relative alpha power in the right SSC but only in Fmr1 knockout mice. FPT also increased relative delta power, with more pronounced effects in Fmr1 KO mice and caused small but significant increases in relative beta power. Distinct impacts of FPT on cortical EEG were like effects caused by certain FDA-approved psychotropic medications (including baclofen, allopregnanolone, and clozapine). These results advance the understanding of FPT's pharmacological and neurophysiological effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanishka S Saraf
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, 3001 Mercer University Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30341, United States
| | - Ryan P McGlynn
- Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, and Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Northeastern University, 300 Huntington Street, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Omkar M Bhatavdekar
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 North Charles Street, Croft Hall B27, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, United States
| | - Raymond G Booth
- Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, and Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Northeastern University, 300 Huntington Street, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Clinton E Canal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, 3001 Mercer University Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30341, United States
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Jonak CR, Pedapati EV, Schmitt LM, Assad SA, Sandhu MS, DeStefano L, Ethridge L, Razak KA, Sweeney JA, Binder DK, Erickson CA. Baclofen-associated neurophysiologic target engagement across species in fragile X syndrome. J Neurodev Disord 2022; 14:52. [PMID: 36167501 PMCID: PMC9513876 DOI: 10.1186/s11689-022-09455-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is the most common inherited form of neurodevelopmental disability. It is often characterized, especially in males, by intellectual disability, anxiety, repetitive behavior, social communication deficits, delayed language development, and abnormal sensory processing. Recently, we identified electroencephalographic (EEG) biomarkers that are conserved between the mouse model of FXS (Fmr1 KO mice) and humans with FXS. METHODS In this report, we evaluate small molecule target engagement utilizing multielectrode array electrophysiology in the Fmr1 KO mouse and in humans with FXS. Neurophysiologic target engagement was evaluated using single doses of the GABAB selective agonist racemic baclofen (RBAC). RESULTS In Fmr1 KO mice and in humans with FXS, baclofen use was associated with suppression of elevated gamma power and increase in low-frequency power at rest. In the Fmr1 KO mice, a baclofen-associated improvement in auditory chirp synchronization was also noted. CONCLUSIONS Overall, we noted synchronized target engagement of RBAC on resting state electrophysiology, in particular the reduction of aberrant high frequency gamma activity, across species in FXS. This finding holds promise for translational medicine approaches to drug development for FXS, synchronizing treatment study across species using well-established EEG biological markers in this field. TRIAL REGISTRATION The human experiments are registered under NCT02998151.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carrie R. Jonak
- grid.266097.c0000 0001 2222 1582Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Riverside, USA
| | - Ernest V. Pedapati
- grid.239573.90000 0000 9025 8099Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH USA ,grid.239573.90000 0000 9025 8099Division of Neurology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH USA ,grid.24827.3b0000 0001 2179 9593Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH USA
| | - Lauren M. Schmitt
- grid.239573.90000 0000 9025 8099Division of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH USA ,grid.24827.3b0000 0001 2179 9593Department of Pediatrics, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH USA
| | - Samantha A. Assad
- grid.266097.c0000 0001 2222 1582Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Riverside, USA
| | - Manbir S. Sandhu
- grid.266097.c0000 0001 2222 1582Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Riverside, USA
| | - Lisa DeStefano
- grid.239573.90000 0000 9025 8099Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH USA ,grid.266900.b0000 0004 0447 0018Department of Psychology, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK USA
| | - Lauren Ethridge
- grid.266900.b0000 0004 0447 0018Department of Psychology, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK USA ,grid.266902.90000 0001 2179 3618Department of Pediatrics, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK USA
| | - Khaleel A. Razak
- grid.266097.c0000 0001 2222 1582Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of California, Riverside, USA ,grid.266097.c0000 0001 2222 1582Psychology Graduate Program, University of California, Riverside, USA
| | - John A. Sweeney
- grid.24827.3b0000 0001 2179 9593Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH USA
| | - Devin K. Binder
- grid.266097.c0000 0001 2222 1582Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California, Riverside, USA ,grid.266097.c0000 0001 2222 1582Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of California, Riverside, USA
| | - Craig A. Erickson
- grid.239573.90000 0000 9025 8099Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH USA ,grid.24827.3b0000 0001 2179 9593Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH USA
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Castro AC, Monteiro P. Auditory Dysfunction in Animal Models of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Front Mol Neurosci 2022; 15:845155. [PMID: 35493332 PMCID: PMC9043325 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.845155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder mainly characterized by social-communication impairments, repetitive behaviors and altered sensory perception. Auditory hypersensitivity is the most common sensory-perceptual abnormality in ASD, however, its underlying neurobiological mechanisms remain elusive. Consistently with reports in ASD patients, animal models for ASD present sensory-perception alterations, including auditory processing impairments. Here we review the current knowledge regarding auditory dysfunction in rodent models of ASD, exploring both shared and distinct features among them, mechanistic and molecular underpinnings, and potential therapeutic approaches. Overall, auditory dysfunction in ASD models seems to arise from impaired central processing. Depending on the model, impairments may arise at different steps along the auditory pathway, from auditory brainstem up to the auditory cortex. Common defects found across models encompass atypical tonotopicity in different regions of the auditory pathway, temporal and spectral processing impairments and histological differences. Imbalance between excitation and inhibition (E/I imbalance) is one of the most well-supported mechanisms explaining the auditory phenotype in the ASD models studied so far and seems to be linked to alterations in GABAergic signaling. Such E/I imbalance may have a large impact on the development of the auditory pathway, influencing the establishment of connections responsible for normal sound processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Carolina Castro
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute, School of Medicine, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
- ICVS/3B’s–PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga, Portugal
| | - Patricia Monteiro
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute, School of Medicine, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
- ICVS/3B’s–PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga, Portugal
- *Correspondence: Patricia Monteiro,
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Kenny A, Wright D, Stanfield AC. EEG as a translational biomarker and outcome measure in fragile X syndrome. Transl Psychiatry 2022; 12:34. [PMID: 35075104 PMCID: PMC8786970 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-022-01796-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Revised: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Targeted treatments for fragile X syndrome (FXS) have frequently failed to show efficacy in clinical testing, despite success at the preclinical stages. This has highlighted the need for more effective translational outcome measures. EEG differences observed in FXS, including exaggerated N1 ERP amplitudes, increased resting gamma power and reduced gamma phase-locking in the sensory cortices, have been suggested as potential biomarkers of the syndrome. These abnormalities are thought to reflect cortical hyper excitability resulting from an excitatory (glutamate) and inhibitory (GABAergic) imbalance in FXS, which has been the target of several pharmaceutical remediation studies. EEG differences observed in humans also show similarities to those seen in laboratory models of FXS, which may allow for greater translational equivalence and better predict clinical success of putative therapeutics. There is some evidence from clinical trials showing that treatment related changes in EEG may be associated with clinical improvements, but these require replication and extension to other medications. Although the use of EEG characteristics as biomarkers is still in the early phases, and further research is needed to establish its utility in clinical trials, the current research is promising and signals the emergence of an effective translational biomarker.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aisling Kenny
- Patrick Wild Centre, Division of Psychiatry, Kennedy Tower, Royal Edinburgh Hospital, University of Edinburgh, EH10 5HF, Edinburgh, UK.
| | - Damien Wright
- grid.4305.20000 0004 1936 7988Patrick Wild Centre, Division of Psychiatry, Kennedy Tower, Royal Edinburgh Hospital, University of Edinburgh, EH10 5HF Edinburgh, UK
| | - Andrew C. Stanfield
- grid.4305.20000 0004 1936 7988Patrick Wild Centre, Division of Psychiatry, Kennedy Tower, Royal Edinburgh Hospital, University of Edinburgh, EH10 5HF Edinburgh, UK
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