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Azevedo JA, Mendonça F. A Critical Review of the Propagation Models Employed in LoRa Systems. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:3877. [PMID: 38931661 PMCID: PMC11207269 DOI: 10.3390/s24123877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2024] [Revised: 05/31/2024] [Accepted: 06/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
LoRa systems are emerging as a promising technology for wireless sensor networks due to their exceptional range and low power consumption. The successful deployment of LoRa networks relies on accurate propagation models to facilitate effective network planning. Therefore, this review explores the landscape of propagation models supporting LoRa networks. Specifically, we examine empirical propagation models commonly employed in communication systems, assessing their applicability across various environments such as outdoor, indoor, and within vegetation. Our investigation underscores the prevalence of logarithmic decay in most empirical models. In addition, we survey the relationship between model parameters and environmental factors, clearing their nuanced interplay. Analyzing published measurement results, we extract the log-distance model parameters to decipher environmental influences comprehensively. Drawing insights from published measurement results for LoRa, we compare them with the model's outcomes, highlighting successes and limitations. We additionally explore the application of multi-slope models to LoRa measurements to evaluate its effectiveness in enhancing the accuracy of path loss prediction. Finally, we propose new lines for future research in propagation modelling to improve empirical models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joaquim Amândio Azevedo
- Center for Research in Mathematics and Applications (CIMA), Faculty of Exact Sciences and Engineering, University of Madeira, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal
| | - Fábio Mendonça
- Faculty of Exact Sciences and Engineering, University of Madeira, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal;
- Interactive Technologies Institute (ITI/LARSyS and ARDITI), Edif. Madeira Tecnopolo, Caminho da Penteada Piso-2, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal
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2
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Kwon B, Son H. Accurate Path Loss Prediction Using a Neural Network Ensemble Method. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:304. [PMID: 38203166 PMCID: PMC10781234 DOI: 10.3390/s24010304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2023] [Revised: 01/02/2024] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
Path loss is one of the most important factors affecting base-station positioning in cellular networks. Traditionally, to determine the optimal installation position of a base station, path-loss measurements are conducted through numerous field tests. Disadvantageously, these measurements are time-consuming. To address this problem, in this study, we propose a machine learning (ML)-based method for path loss prediction. Specifically, a neural network ensemble learning technique was applied to enhance the accuracy and performance of path loss prediction. To achieve this, an ensemble of neural networks was constructed by selecting the top-ranked networks based on the results of hyperparameter optimization. The performance of the proposed method was compared with that of various ML-based methods on a public dataset. The simulation results showed that the proposed method had clearly outperformed state-of-the-art methods and that it could accurately predict path loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beom Kwon
- Division of Interdisciplinary Studies in Cultural Intelligence, Dongduk Women’s University, Seoul 02784, Republic of Korea;
| | - Hyukmin Son
- Department of Electronic Engineering, Gachon University, Seongnam 13120, Republic of Korea
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3
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Faruk N, Adebowale QR, Olayinka IFY, Adewole KS, Abdulkarim A, Oloyede AA, Chiroma H, Sowande OA, Olawoyin LA, Garba S, Usman AD, Adediran YA, Taura LS. ANN-based model for multiband path loss prediction in built-up environments. SCIENTIFIC AFRICAN 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.sciaf.2022.e01350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
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A CSI Fingerprint Method for Indoor Pseudolite Positioning Based on RT-ANN. FUTURE INTERNET 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/fi14080235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
At present, the interaction mechanism between the complex indoor environment and pseudolite signals has not been fundamentally resolved, and the stability, continuity, and accuracy of indoor positioning are still technical bottlenecks. In view of the shortcomings of the existing indoor fingerprint positioning methods, this paper proposes a hybrid CSI fingerprint method for indoor pseudolite positioning based on Ray Tracing and artificial neural network (RT-ANN), which combines the advantages of actual acquisition, deterministic simulation, and artificial neural network, and adds the simulation CSI feature parameters generated by modeling and simulation to the input of the neural network, extending the sample features of the neural network input dataset. Taking an airport environment as an example, it is proved that the hybrid method can improve the positioning accuracy in the area where the fingerprints have been collected, the positioning error is reduced by 54.7% compared with the traditional fingerprint positioning method. It is also proved that preliminary positioning can be completed in the area without fingerprint collection.
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Anzum R, Habaebi MH, Islam MR, Hakim GPN, Khandaker MU, Osman H, Alamri S, AbdElrahim E. A Multiwall Path-Loss Prediction Model Using 433 MHz LoRa-WAN Frequency to Characterize Foliage's Influence in a Malaysian Palm Oil Plantation Environment. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:5397. [PMID: 35891077 PMCID: PMC9317254 DOI: 10.3390/s22145397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2022] [Revised: 07/12/2022] [Accepted: 07/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Palm oil is the main cash crop of tropical Asia, and the implementation of LPWAN (low-power wide-area network) technologies for smart agriculture applications in palm oil plantations will benefit the palm oil industry in terms of making more revenue. This research attempts to characterize the LoRa 433 MHz frequency channels for the available spreading factors (SF7-SF12) and bandwidths (125 kHz, 250 kHz, and 500 kHz) for wireless sensor networks. The LoRa channel modeling in terms of path-loss calculation uses empirical measurements of RSS (received signal strength) in a palm oil plantation located in Selangor, Malaysia. In this research, about 1500 LoS (line-of-sight) and 300 NLoS (non-line-of-sight) propagation measurement data are collected for path-loss prediction modeling. Using the empirical data, a prediction model is constructed. The path-loss exponent for LoS propagation of the proposed prediction model is found to be 2.34 and 2.9 for 125-250 kHz bandwidth and 500 kHz bandwidth, respectively. Again, for the NLoS propagation links, the attenuation per trunk is found to be 7.58 dB, 7.04 dB, 5.35 dB, 5.02 dB, 5.01 dB, and 5 dB for SF7-SF12, and the attenuation per canopy is found to be 9.32 dB, 7.96 dB, 6.2 dB, 5.89 dB, 5.79 dB, and 5.45 dB for SF7-SF12. Moreover, the prediction model is found to be the better choice (mean RMSE 2.74 dB) in comparison to the empirical foliage loss models (Weissberger's and ITU-R) to predict the path loss in palm oil plantations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rabeya Anzum
- IoT & Wireless Communication Protocols Lab, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Kulliyyah of Engineering (KOE), International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), Kuala Lumpur 53100, Malaysia; (R.A.); (M.R.I.); (G.P.N.H.)
| | - Mohamed Hadi Habaebi
- IoT & Wireless Communication Protocols Lab, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Kulliyyah of Engineering (KOE), International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), Kuala Lumpur 53100, Malaysia; (R.A.); (M.R.I.); (G.P.N.H.)
| | - Md Rafiqul Islam
- IoT & Wireless Communication Protocols Lab, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Kulliyyah of Engineering (KOE), International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), Kuala Lumpur 53100, Malaysia; (R.A.); (M.R.I.); (G.P.N.H.)
| | - Galang P. N. Hakim
- IoT & Wireless Communication Protocols Lab, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Kulliyyah of Engineering (KOE), International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), Kuala Lumpur 53100, Malaysia; (R.A.); (M.R.I.); (G.P.N.H.)
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Mercu Buana, Jakarta 11650, Indonesia
| | - Mayeen Uddin Khandaker
- Centre for Applied Physics and Radiation Technologies, School of Engineering and Technology, Sunway University, Bandar Sunway 47500, Malaysia;
- Department of General Educational Development, Faculty of Science and Information Technology, Daffodil International University, DIU Rd, Dhaka 1341, Bangladesh
| | - Hamid Osman
- Department of Radiological Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taif University, P.O. Box 2425, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia; (H.O.); (S.A.); (E.A.)
| | - Sultan Alamri
- Department of Radiological Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taif University, P.O. Box 2425, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia; (H.O.); (S.A.); (E.A.)
| | - Elrashed AbdElrahim
- Department of Radiological Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taif University, P.O. Box 2425, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia; (H.O.); (S.A.); (E.A.)
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Kim WY, Tae SH, Seo DH. Access-Point Centered Window-Based Radio-Map Generation Network. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21186107. [PMID: 34577314 PMCID: PMC8472868 DOI: 10.3390/s21186107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2021] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Fingerprinting is the term used to describe a common indoor radio-mapping positioning technology that tracks moving objects in real time. To use this, a substantial number of measurement processes and workflows are needed to generate a radio-map. Accordingly, to minimize costs and increase the usability of such radio-maps, this study proposes an access-point (AP)-centered window (APCW) radio-map generation network (RGN). The proposed technique extracts parts of a radio-map in the form of a window based on AP floor plan coordinates to shorten the training time while enhancing radio-map prediction accuracy. To provide robustness against changes in the location of the APs and to enhance the utilization of similar structures, the proposed RGN, which employs an adversarial learning method and uses the APCW as input, learns the indoor space in partitions and combines the radio-maps of each AP to generate a complete map. By comparing four learning models that use different data structures as input based on an actual building, the proposed radio-map learning model (i.e., APCW-based RGN) obtains the highest accuracy among all models tested, yielding a root-mean-square error value of 4.01 dBm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Won-Yeol Kim
- Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Interdisciplinary Major of Maritime AI Convergence, Korea Maritime and Ocean University, Busan 49112, Korea; (W.-Y.K.); (S.-H.T.)
| | - Soo-Ho Tae
- Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Interdisciplinary Major of Maritime AI Convergence, Korea Maritime and Ocean University, Busan 49112, Korea; (W.-Y.K.); (S.-H.T.)
| | - Dong-Hoan Seo
- Division of Electronics and Electrical Information Engineering, Interdisciplinary Major of Maritime AI Convergence, Korea Maritime and Ocean University, Busan 49112, Korea
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-51-410-4412
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Nguyen C, Cheema AA. A Deep Neural Network-Based Multi-Frequency Path Loss Prediction Model from 0.8 GHz to 70 GHz. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 21:5100. [PMID: 34372343 PMCID: PMC8347390 DOI: 10.3390/s21155100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Revised: 07/15/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Large-scale fading models play an important role in estimating radio coverage, optimizing base station deployments and characterizing the radio environment to quantify the performance of wireless networks. In recent times, multi-frequency path loss models are attracting much interest due to their expected support for both sub-6 GHz and higher frequency bands in future wireless networks. Traditionally, linear multi-frequency path loss models like the ABG model have been considered, however such models lack accuracy. The path loss model based on a deep learning approach is an alternative method to traditional linear path loss models to overcome the time-consuming path loss parameters predictions based on the large dataset at new frequencies and new scenarios. In this paper, we proposed a feed-forward deep neural network (DNN) model to predict path loss of 13 different frequencies from 0.8 GHz to 70 GHz simultaneously in an urban and suburban environment in a non-line-of-sight (NLOS) scenario. We investigated a broad range of possible values for hyperparameters to search for the best set of ones to obtain the optimal architecture of the proposed DNN model. The results show that the proposed DNN-based path loss model improved mean square error (MSE) by about 6 dB and achieved higher prediction accuracy R2 compared to the multi-frequency ABG path loss model. The paper applies the XGBoost algorithm to evaluate the importance of the features for the proposed model and the related impact on the path loss prediction. In addition, the effect of hyperparameters, including activation function, number of hidden neurons in each layer, optimization algorithm, regularization factor, batch size, learning rate, and momentum, on the performance of the proposed model in terms of prediction error and prediction accuracy are also investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Adnan Ahmad Cheema
- SenComm Research Lab, School of Engineering, Jordanstown Campus, Ulster University, Newtownabbey BT37 0QB, UK;
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Tognola G, Plets D, Chiaramello E, Gallucci S, Bonato M, Fiocchi S, Parazzini M, Martens L, Joseph W, Ravazzani P. Use of Machine Learning for the Estimation of Down- and Up-Link Field Exposure in Multi-Source Indoor WiFi Scenarios. Bioelectromagnetics 2021; 42:550-561. [PMID: 34298586 PMCID: PMC8519090 DOI: 10.1002/bem.22361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2020] [Revised: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A novel Machine Learning (ML) method based on Neural Networks (NN) is proposed to assess radio‐frequency (RF) exposure generated by WiFi sources in indoor scenarios. The aim was to build an NN capable of addressing the complexity and variability of real‐life exposure setups, including the effects of not only down‐link transmission access points (APs) but also up‐link transmission by different sources (e.g. laptop, printers, tablets, and smartphones). The NN was fed with easy to be found data, such as the position and type of WiFi sources (APs, clients, and other users) and the position and material characteristics (e.g. penetration loss) of walls. The NN model was assessed using an additional new layout, distinct from that one used to build and optimize the NN coefficients. The NN model achieved a remarkable field prediction accuracy across exposure conditions in both layouts, with a median prediction error of −0.4 to 0.6 dB and a root mean square error of 2.5−5.1 dB, compared with the target electric field estimated by a deterministic indoor network planner. The proposed approach performs well for the different layouts and is thus generally used to assess RF exposure in indoor scenarios. © 2021 The Authors. Bioelectromagnetics published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Bioelectromagnetics Society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriella Tognola
- National Research Council, Institute of Electronics, Computer and Telecommunication Engineering (CNR IEIIT), Milan, Italy
| | - David Plets
- Department of Information Technology, Gent University/IMEC, Gent, Belgium
| | - Emma Chiaramello
- National Research Council, Institute of Electronics, Computer and Telecommunication Engineering (CNR IEIIT), Milan, Italy
| | - Silvia Gallucci
- National Research Council, Institute of Electronics, Computer and Telecommunication Engineering (CNR IEIIT), Milan, Italy
| | - Marta Bonato
- National Research Council, Institute of Electronics, Computer and Telecommunication Engineering (CNR IEIIT), Milan, Italy.,Department of Electronics, Information and Bioengineering (DEIB), Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Serena Fiocchi
- National Research Council, Institute of Electronics, Computer and Telecommunication Engineering (CNR IEIIT), Milan, Italy
| | - Marta Parazzini
- National Research Council, Institute of Electronics, Computer and Telecommunication Engineering (CNR IEIIT), Milan, Italy
| | - Luc Martens
- Department of Information Technology, Gent University/IMEC, Gent, Belgium
| | - Wout Joseph
- Department of Information Technology, Gent University/IMEC, Gent, Belgium
| | - Paolo Ravazzani
- National Research Council, Institute of Electronics, Computer and Telecommunication Engineering (CNR IEIIT), Milan, Italy
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Path Loss Prediction Based on Machine Learning: Principle, Method, and Data Expansion. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/app9091908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Path loss prediction is of great significance for the performance optimization of wireless networks. With the development and deployment of the fifth-generation (5G) mobile communication systems, new path loss prediction methods with high accuracy and low complexity should be proposed. In this paper, the principle and procedure of machine-learning-based path loss prediction are presented. Measured data are used to evaluate the performance of different models such as artificial neural network, support vector regression, and random forest. It is shown that these machine-learning-based models outperform the log-distance model. In view of the fact that the volume of measured data sometimes cannot meet the requirements of machine learning algorithms, we propose two mechanisms to expand the training dataset. On one hand, old measured data can be reused in new scenarios or at different frequencies. On the other hand, the classical model can also be utilized to generate a number of training samples based on the prior information obtained from measured results. Measured data are employed to verify the feasibility of these data expansion mechanisms. Finally, some issues for future research are discussed.
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