Meet the Meat Alternatives: The Value of Alternative Protein Sources

Development and characterization of fibrous high moisture extrudates based on pea protein isolate and whey protein

BACKGROUND

Construction of meat analogs based on pea protein isolate (PPI) alone by high moisture extrusion (HME) is diffocult as a result of the lack of anisotropic structures. In the present study, 0%-15% of whey protein (WP) was introduced to PPI to make hybrid blends, which were used to construct HME extrudates.

RESULTS

WP enhanced the hardness, adhesive, cohesiveness and gumminess of the extrudates and facilitated the formation of a distinct anisotropic structure of PPI. The fibrous degrees of the extrudates containing 10% and 15% WP were around 1.50. The addition of WP, which has more -SH groups, increased the disulfide bonds and hydrogen bonding in the extrudates, leading to a denser cross-linked structure. Particle size distribution and Fourier transform infrared analysis showed that WP induced more compact structured aggregates and more β-sheet structures in the extrudates. Furthermore, the higher hydration capacity of WP may also help form a dilute melt and generate a more pronounced plug flow, assisting the formation of fiber structures of PPI.

CONCLUSION

The present study demonstrates that WP is a potential modifier, which could be used to improve the structure of PPI-based meat analogs. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Current challenges of alternative proteins as future foods

Global demand for food is expected to nearly double by 2050. Alternative proteins (AP) have been proposed as a sustainable solution to provide food security as natural resources become more depleted. However, the growth and consumer intake of AP remains limited. This review aims to better understand the challenges and environmental impacts of four main AP categories: plant-based, insect-based, microbe-derived, and cultured meat and seafood. The environmental benefits of plant-based and insect-based proteins have been documented but the impacts of microbe-derived proteins and cultured meat have not been fully assessed. The development of alternative products with nutritional and sensory profiles similar to their conventional counterparts remains highly challenging. Furthermore, incomplete safety assessments and a lack of clear regulatory guidelines confuse the food industry and hamper progress. Much still needs to be done to fully support AP utilization within the context of supporting the drive to make the global food system sustainable.

Sausage Quality during Storage under the Partial Substitution of Meat with Fermented Oyster Mushrooms

The increasing global demand for meat production, driven by a rapidly expanding population and changing dietary preferences has prompted the search for protein-rich, sustainable, and healthier meat alternatives. In this context, edible mushrooms are viewed as advantageous substitutes for meat, offering a viable solution. This study aimed to investigate the effects of partially replacing (25% and 50%) pork meat in sausage samples with fermented oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus), which were subjected to various pretreatments. Six different pretreatments were applied to fresh oyster mushrooms as follows: blanching in water, steaming, oven-cooking, microwave treatment, high hydrostatic pressure treatment, and ultraviolet light treatment. The effects of mushroom replacement on the moisture, pH, lipid oxidation, color, and textural properties of sausages during the 4-week refrigerated storage period were evaluated. The results revealed that replacing pork meat with fermented oyster mushrooms resulted in an increase in moisture content and b* values and a decrease in pH, L*, a*, and shear force values, proportional to the mushroom percentage. The lipid oxidation findings suggest that the antioxidant capabilities of fermented oyster mushrooms were influenced by the pretreatment methods applied to the mushrooms, exhibiting varying levels of effectiveness.

Microalgae: potential novel protein for sustainable human nutrition

To support a global population of ~10 billion people in 2050, dietary protein demand is forecast to increase 32-78% compared to 2017, requiring significantly higher planetary resources. Microalgae are an attractive sustainable protein source compared with current plant and animal sources. Benefits include mass scalability, low CO2 emissions, and significantly reduced land and freshwater use per unit protein. Microalgae are already used as food products and numerous species exhibit high total protein contents and well-balanced essential amino acid (EAA) compositions for human dietary requirements. Microalgae proteins are also bioavailable for human digestion, and downstream processing steps are likely to further enhance protein digestibility. Species, cultivation, and process/product optimisation are actively being developed to enhance their nutritional, social, and environmental benefits.

A review: analysis of technical challenges in cultured meat production and its commercialization

The cultured meat technology has developed rapidly in recent years, but there are still many technical challenges that hinder the large-scale production and commercialization of cultured meat. Firstly, it is necessary to lay the foundation for cultured meat production by obtaining seed cells and maintaining stable cell functions. Next, technologies such as bioreactors are used to expand the scale of cell culture, and three-dimensional culture technologies such as scaffold culture or 3D printing are used to construct the three-dimensional structure of cultured meat. At the same time, it can reduce production costs by developing serum-free medium suitable for cultured meat. Finally, the edible quality of cultured meat is improved by evaluating food safety and sensory flavor, and combining ethical and consumer acceptability issues. Therefore, this review fully demonstrates the current development status and existing technical challenges of the cultured meat production technology with regard to the key points described above, in order to provide research ideas for the industrial production of cultured meat.

Dietary Inclusion of Yellow Mealworms (T. molitor) and Lesser Mealworms (A. diaperinus) Modifies Intestinal Microbiota Populations of Diet-Induced Obesity Mice

BACKGROUND

Insect-based proteins are high-quality alternatives to support the shift toward more sustainable and healthy diets. Additionally, insects contain chitin and have unique fatty acid profiles. Studies have shown that mealworms may beneficially affect metabolism, but limited information is known regarding their effects on gut microbiota.

OBJECTIVES

We determined the effects of defatted yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) and whole lesser mealworm (Alphitobius diaperinus) meals on the intestinal microbiota of diet-induced obesity mice.

METHODS

Male C57BL/6J mice were fed a high-fat diet (HFD; 46% kcal) to induce obesity. Obese mice were then randomly assigned to treatments (n = 10/group) and fed for 8 wk: HFD, HFD with casein protein; B50, HFD with 50% protein from whole lesser mealworm; B100, HFD with 100% protein from whole lesser mealworm; Y50, HFD with 50% protein from defatted yellow mealworm; Y100, HFD with 100% protein from defatted yellow mealworm. Lean mice (n = 10) fed a low-fat-diet (10% kcal) were included. Fresh feces were collected at baseline and every 2 wk, with cecal digesta collected at kill. Fecal and cecal DNA was analyzed for microbiota using 16S rRNA MiSeq Illumina sequencing.

RESULTS

In feces and cecal digesta, mice fed mealworms had greater (P < 0.05) bacterial alpha diversity, with changes occurring in a time-dependent manner (P < 0.05). Beta diversity analyses of cecal samples showed a clear separation of treatments, with a time-based separation shown in fecal samples. Widespread microbial differences were observed, with over 45 genera altered (P < 0.05) by diet in cecal digesta. In feces, over 50 genera and 40 genera were altered (P < 0.05) by diet and time, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Mealworm consumption changes the intestinal microbiota of obese mice, increasing alpha diversity measures and shifting bacterial taxa. More investigation is required to determine what mealworm components are responsible and how they may be linked with the metabolic benefits observed in mealworm-fed mice.

Yellow Mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) and Lesser Mealworm (Alphitobius diaperinus) Proteins Slowed Weight Gain and Improved Metabolism of Diet-Induced Obesity Mice

BACKGROUND

High-protein diets not only meet amino acid needs but also modulate satiety and energy metabolism. Insect-based proteins are sustainable, high-quality proteins. Mealworms have been studied, but limited information is known about their ability to impact metabolism and obesity.

OBJECTIVE

We determined the effects of defatted yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor)- and whole lesser mealworm (Alphitobius diaperinus)-based proteins on the body weight (BW), serum metabolites, and liver and adipose tissue (AT) histology and gene expression of diet-induced obesity mice.

METHODS

Male C57BL/6J mice were fed a high-fat diet (HFD; 46% kcal) to induce obesity and metabolic syndrome. Obese mice were then assigned to treatments (n = 10/group) and fed for 8 wk: HFD: HFD with casein protein; B50: HFD with 50% protein from whole lesser mealworm; B100: HFD with 100% protein from whole lesser mealworm; Y50: HFD with 50% protein from defatted yellow mealworm; Y100: HFD with 100% protein from defatted yellow mealworm. Lean mice (n = 10) fed a low-fat-diet (LFD; 10% kcal) were included. Longitudinal food intake, BW, body composition, and glucose response were measured. At time of killing, serum metabolites, tissue histopathology and gene expression, and hepatic triglycerides were analyzed.

RESULTS

After 8 wk, HFD, B50, and B100 had greater (P < 0.05) weight gain than LFD, whereas Y50 and Y100 did not. Y50, B100, and Y100 had a lower (P < 0.05) BW change rate than HFD. Mealworm-based diets led to increased (P < 0.05) serum high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and reduced (P < 0.05) serum low-density lipoprotein (LDL) concentrations and reduced (P<0.05) LDL/HDL ratio. Mealworm-based diets led to increased (P < 0.05) hepatic expression of genes related to energy balance, immune response, and antioxidants and reduced (P < 0.05) AT expression of genes associated with inflammation and apoptosis. Mealworm-based diets altered (P < 0.05) hepatic and AT expression of glucose and lipid metabolism genes.

CONCLUSIONS

In addition to serving as an alternative protein source, mealworms may confer health benefits to obese patients.

Non-animal-based options for animal-based foods- towards a systematic terminology

The market has seen a rapid increase in animal-free products intended to replace animal-based foods due to concerns for human health and environmental sustainability. However, there is a lack of consistent terminology for these products, with various terms being used interchangeably, creating ambiguity. To address this issue, we propose a systematic nomenclature that defines the most commonly used terms, namely alternative, substitute, replacement, and analog, along with examples of each. In this nomenclature, a substitute primarily serves a culinary purpose, while a replacement is concerned with nutritional properties. An analog strives to satisfy both culinary and nutritional attributes to closely mimic animal-based foods in terms of sensory, nutritional, and functional characteristics. The term "alternative" serves as an umbrella term encompassing all possibilities. This work aims to promote a clearer understanding of such products and their intended use and facilitate a unified use of terminology across disciplines. This will also enable informed decision-making for consumers and greater transparency in the food industry. The health and environmental implications of these products are not discussed in this perspective.

Comprehensive Review on the Role of Plant Protein As a Possible Meat Analogue: Framing the Future of Meat

Animal proteins from meat and goods derived from meat have recently been one of the primary concerns in the quest for sustainable food production. According to this perspective, there are exciting opportunities to reformulate more sustainably produced meat products that may also have health benefits by partially replacing meat with nonmeat substances high in protein. Considering these pre-existing conditions, this review critically summarizes recent findings on extenders from a variety of sources, including pulses, plant-based ingredients, plant byproducts, and unconventional sources. It views these findings as a valuable opportunity to improve the technological profile and functional quality of meat, with a focus on their ability to affect the sustainability of meat products. As a result, meat substitutes like plant-based meat analogues (PBMAs), meat made from fungi, and cultured meat are being offered to encourage sustainability.

How Different Dimensions Shape the Definition of Meat Alternative Products: A Scoping Review of Evidence between 2000 and 2021

Consumer awareness of meat-associated health and environmental risks is increasing and motivates a shift toward consuming meat alternatives. This is also reflected in efforts invested in studying meat alternatives from the perspective of nutritional, environmental, and consumer sciences. Despite shared research interest, these studies cannot be readily compared and interpreted because there is no clear consensus on what meat alternatives are. Scholarly debates on acceptance, nutritional value, and environmental advantages of meat alternatives would benefit from a clear definition of meat alternatives. With the goal of defining meat alternatives, relevant scientific literature in the past 10 years was systematically searched and screened guided by the scoping review Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension. The initial search resulted in >100,000 hits, which was reduced to 2465 papers. Next, titles and abstracts were scrutinized using Rayyan.ai, resulting in 193 articles considered for the present review. Article screening and data extraction was performed using ATLAS.ti software. Three major themes were identified to define meat alternative products including: 1) producing and sourcing of ingredients; 2) product characteristics (that is, sensory characteristics, nutritional value, and health profile, social and environmental sustainability profile); and 3) consumer characteristics concerning the marketing and consumption context. Meat alternatives are multifaceted, that is, certain products can be considered as meat alternatives in some context, but not in another context. For any product, it is impossible to unequivocally state that it is a meat alternative. There is a lack of consensus from the diverse literature on what constitutes meat alternatives. However, products may be qualified as meat alternatives according to three key criteria as proposed in a taxonomy: 1) production and sourcing, 2) product characteristics, and/or 3) consumption. We recommend researchers (and other stakeholders) to do so as it allows for better informed future discussions of meat alternatives.

Sustainable Strategies for Increasing Legume Consumption: Culinary and Educational Approaches

Legumes are nutrient-dense crops with health-promoting benefits. However, several barriers are associated with their consumption. Emerging issues including food neophobic tendencies or taboos, unclear dietary guidelines on legume consumption, health concerns, and socio-economic reasons, as well as long cooking procedures, adversely affect legume consumption frequency. Pre-treatment methods, including soaking, sprouting, and pulse electric field technology, are effective in reducing the alpha-oligosaccharides and other anti-nutritional factors, eventually lowering cooking time for legumes. Extrusion technology used for innovative development of legume-enriched products, including snacks, breakfast cereals and puffs, baking and pasta, represents a strategic way to promote legume consumption. Culinary skills such as legume salads, legume sprouts, stews, soups, hummus, and the development of homemade cake recipes using legume flour could represent effective ways to promote legume consumption. This review aims to highlight the nutritional and health effects associated with legume consumption, and strategies to improve their digestibility and nutritional profile. Additionally, proper educational and culinary approaches aimed to improve legumes intake are discussed.

Impact of Ultrasonication on African Oil Bean (Pentaclethra macrophylla Benth) Protein Extraction and Properties

African oil bean (Pentaclethra macrophylla Benth) is an underutilised edible oil seed that could represent a sustainable protein source. In this study, the impact of ultrasonication on the extraction efficiency and properties of protein from African oil bean (AOB) seeds was evaluated. The increase in the duration of extraction favoured the extraction of AOB proteins. This was observed by an increase in extraction yield from 24% to 42% (w/w) when the extraction time was increased from 15 min to 60 min. Desirable properties were observed in extracted AOB proteins; the amino acid profile of protein isolates revealed higher ratios of hydrophobic to hydrophilic amino acids compared to those of the defatted seeds, suggesting alterations in their functional properties. This was also supported by the higher proportion of hydrophobic amino acids and high surface hydrophobicity index value (3813) in AOB protein isolates. The foaming capacity of AOB proteins was above 200%, with an average foaming stability of 92%. The results indicate that AOB protein isolates can be considered promising food ingredients and could help stimulate the growth of the food industry in tropical Sub-Saharan regions where AOB seeds thrive.

Variations of nonvolatile taste components of mushrooms with different operating conditions and parameters from farm to fork

Mushroom is a sustainable food option and a meat substitute which yet needs some strategies to enhance sensory attributes. Especially, their taste characteristics (nonvolatile taste components: soluble sugars, organic acids, free amino acids, and 5'-nucleotides) can vary significantly due to operating conditions and parameters during different stages from farm to fork. This review is aimed to provide an overall view of the determined effects of operating conditions and parameters for mushroom taste attributes, suggestions for future research from lacking variables, and some recommendations for improving the taste perception of mushrooms. Taste compounds of mushrooms alter differently based on cultivation (species, cultivation or maturity stage, substrate composition, part, grade, mycelium strain), cooking (cooking method, time, temperature), preservation, and post-harvest storage conditions (drying parameters, pretreatment, preservation method, gamma irradiation, packaging, storage time and temperature). The dominant tastes of mushrooms given by sweet and umami taste active substances can be enhanced significantly with proper control of parameters during cultivation, cooking, drying, or post-harvest storage. The parameters and variations organized in this review can be used to develop a mathematical model for obtaining optimum taste attributes of mushrooms and mushroom-based meat alternatives and to discover the variables of mushroom species not studied yet.

Protein Sources Alternative to Meat: State of the Art and Involvement of Fermentation

Meat represents an important protein source, even in developing countries, but its production is scarcely sustainable, and its excessive consumption poses health issues. An increasing number of Western consumers would replace, at least partially, meat with alternative protein sources. This review aims at: (i) depicting nutritional, functional, sensory traits, and critical issues of single-cell proteins (SCP), filamentous fungi, microalgae, vegetables (alone or mixed with milk), and insects and (ii) displaying how fermentation could improve their quality, to facilitate their use as food items/ingredients/supplements. Production of SCP (yeasts, filamentous fungi, microalgae) does not need arable land and potable water and can run continuously, also using wastes and byproducts. Some filamentous fungi are also consumed as edible mushrooms, and others are involved in the fermentation of traditional vegetable-based foods. Cereals, pseudocereals, and legumes may be combined to offer an almost complete amino acid profile. Fermentation of such vegetables, even in combination with milk-based products (e.g., tarhana), could increase nutrient concentrations, including essential amino acids, and improve sensory traits. Different insects could be used, as such or, to increase their acceptability, as ingredient of foods (e.g., pasta). However, insects as a protein source face with safety concerns, cultural constraints, and a lack of international regulatory framework.

Fungal-Derived Mycoprotein and Health across the Lifespan: A Narrative Review

Mycoprotein is a filamentous fungal protein that was first identified in the 1960s. A growing number of publications have investigated inter-relationships between mycoprotein intakes and aspects of human health. A narrative review was undertaken focusing on evidence from randomized controlled trials, clinical trials, intervention, and observational studies. Fifteen key publications were identified and undertaken in early/young adulthood, adulthood (mid-life) or older/advanced age. Main findings showed that fungal mycoprotein could contribute to an array of health benefits across the lifespan including improved lipid profiles, glycaemic markers, dietary fibre intakes, satiety effects and muscle/myofibrillar protein synthesis. Continued research is needed which would be worthwhile at both ends of the lifespan spectrum and specific population sub-groups.

Structure analysis and quality evaluation of plant-based meat analogs

The growing world's population increases the demand of proteins. Meat products as the major source of high protein food are facing environmental impacts and animal welfare issues. Therefore, plant-based meat analogs are developed and gain a foothold in global markets. The structure design, sensory attributes and nutrient characteristics of meat analogs are crucial points to match the real meat. This review aimed to systematically introduce the structural analysis methods and evaluate meat analog products from quality-related attributes. First, various strategies of analyzing the fibrous structure of meat analogs were illustrated, including microscopic imaging and several optical techniques. Then, representative techniques such as NMR and AFM-IR for analyzing the distribution of moisture and lipid in meat analogs are introduced. In terms of quality, we elaborated on the texture and sensory evaluation methods and dialectically analyzed meat analogs' nutrition, which can provide a guidance for the advanced development of meat analogs.

Exploring alternative protein sources: Evidence from patents and articles focusing on food markets

This review considers alternative protein sources through the analysis of food science literature and patents. Data collection was performed from scientific literature and patent documents using the Scopus and National Institute of Industrial Property databases, with a term combination "alternative protein source" and "source* AND protein* AND alternative*". A total of 945 documents were analyzed. The scientific prospection showed that agricultural and biological science was the main application area. The food industry area had the highest number of filed patents. The annual evaluation of published documents demonstrated that this area had been investigated since the 1970s, and the number of articles was twice than that of filled patents. Although protein products are available for sale, animal and vegetable sources replace conventional protein products. Presently, alternative protein sources are already a worldwide trend in the food industry, enabling the development of new products to facilitate their insertion into the consumer market.

What Attributes of Meat Substitutes Matter Most to Consumers? The Role of Sustainability Education and the Meat Substitutes Perceptions

Given the rising environmental, health, and food safety concerns, the advantages of meat substitutes are garnering increased attention. Applying the extended theory of planned behavior, this study explored what aspects of meat substitutes positively influence consumer purchase intention associated with attitude, subjective norms, and behavioral control. In addition, the level of consumers’ education in sustainability was analyzed for its potential moderating effect within the proposed model. A total of 319 responses obtained from Korean consumers were used. The analysis results revealed that the health attributes of meat substitutes improved consumer attitude, subjective norms, and behavioral control. The environmental attributes enhanced consumer attitude and behavioral control but had no significant effect on subjective norms. Further, subjective norms led to a positive attitude, and attitude and behavioral controls positively improved meat substitutes’ purchase intention. Our analysis revealed that sustainability education significantly enhanced the positive relationship between behavioral control and purchase intention. This study provides an integrative framework that allows for a systematic understanding of consumer responses regarding meat substitutes. Our model may be useful in exploring other influential attributes of meat substitutes that can lead to more positive consumer responses and ultimately enhance consumption.

Investigation of enzymatic hydrolysis kinetics of soy protein isolate: laboratory and semi-industrial scale

Using parameters of optimal conditions from laboratory experiments often results in the loss of significant time and resources when trying to scale up the process. In this study, the comparison of results of laboratory and semi-industrial experiments of enzymatic hydrolysis of soy protein isolate is considered. The kinetics of peptides accumulation was investigated by colorimetric method in both microtube (volume reaction is 0.7 ml, 7.14 mg/ml of substrate, incubation in solid state thermostat) and industrial homogenizer (volume reaction is 4,000 ml, 100 mg/ml of substrate, rotor-stator type mixer). The enzyme preparation Protosubtilin G3x (main component is subtilisin) was used as an analogue of the Alcalase preparation, which is already widely used in the food industry. It was found that the pH and the number of proteolytic units in the reaction mixture of both scales had slightly different results of the kinetics, while the temperature showed significantly one. The laboratory scale of the reaction had a wide range of optimal temperature (40-60 ∘ C, 30 ∘ C showed slowest rate of kinetics reaction), whereas the semi-industrial scale had 50 ∘ C of optimal temperature (30, 40, 60 ∘ C had the same kinetics). It also was found that maintaining the pH value of the reaction mixture was not mandatory. The obtained results indicate the need to refine the process conditions using semi-industrial experiments before attracting industrial-scale resources. In the case of selection of conditions for the hydrolysis of soy protein isolate in production, it is necessary first of all to take into account the reaction temperature as the most irreproducible parameter when scaling.

Meat alternatives: A proofed commodity?

The demand for meat alternatives has been growing in the recent years and it is expected to keep expanding. Motives driving this growth are diverse and are mostly related to the health and ethical concerns over animal welfare and the possible impact of meat production on the environment. Meat alternatives are not anymore a niche market (i.e., vegetarians and vegans) but going mainstream (also consumed by meat eaters and flexitarians). This can be attributed to advances in formulations and ingredients and innovative technologies resulting in improved quality of products. This chapter summarizes the current knowledge about meat alternatives (from plant, fungi or/and algae). Plant-based alternatives are already a proofed commodity with a wide range of products available in the market. The search for more sustainable sources had put the spotlight on other sources such as fungi and algae due to their limited need to land, energy and water for biomass production. Fungi-based alternatives are steps ahead of those algae-based owing to fungi neutral flavor, comparable nutritional profile to meat and no need to masking agents. Consumer acceptance is still a key challenge boosting research and development efforts to ensure a better quality, affordability, and sustainability.

Food-Based Dietary Guidelines and Protein Quality Definitions—Time to Move Forward and Encompass Mycoprotein?

Food-Based Dietary Guidelines (FBDG) lack uniformity globally, with the integration of protein food sources being highly variable. Protein guidance tends to be dichotomous, e.g., animal versus plant with other categories such as fungal proteins being overlooked. In 2019 the EAT Lancet Food in the Anthropocene report was a chief driver questioning the need to supply healthy diets from sustainable food systems. Some countries are developing FBDG that integrate these aspects, but these are quite often protracted, too subtle or misaligned with other countries, diluting the effects of meaningful global change. Protein quality metrics also underpin the dissemination of dietary guidance. However, for protein, these remain based on a food’s essential amino acid profile and digestibility scores, thus are nutritionally and physiologically centric. It has been proposed that this definition is becoming increasingly myopic from a wider societal perspective. Updated indices should include contemporary issues such as protein diversity and environmental outcomes. Taken together, there is opportunity for renewed thinking about both FBDG and protein quality definitions, with scope to include both health and environmental outcomes and need to move towards the concept of protein diversification.

Millennials’ Consumption of and Attitudes toward Meat and Plant-Based Meat Alternatives by Consumer Segment in Finland

Millennials are considered the key generation with regard to the consumption of plant-based meat alternatives via flexitarianism. This study sought to characterize millennials’ consumer segments based on their consumption of and attitudes toward meat and meat alternatives. We conducted an online survey on the hedonic tones of the associations evoked by meat and meat alternatives, consumption of such foods, and diet-related attitudes among a representative sample of Finnish millennials (N = 546, 59% women, age 20–39 years). Some 41% of respondents regularly ate plant-based meat alternatives, while 43% had tried such foods. We divided the respondents into six segments based on the hedonic tones of their meat vs. meat alternatives associations. The segments differed in terms of their consumption of meat alternatives and the underlying reasons why, importance of meat in meals, and Meat Commitment Scale scores. The segment that reported much more positive associations with meat than meat alternatives (~14% of the respondents) may prove resistant to interventions intended to reduce meat intake, whereas the segment that displayed the most positive attitudes toward meat alternatives (~18%) did not eat much meat. Thus, the four middle segments (totaling ~68%), whose associations’ hedonic tones were close to each other, may be the best targets for future interventions designed to reduce meat consumption through the use of meat alternatives. To conclude, introducing a simple segmentation allowed us to identify consumer segments with large potential to reduce meat consumption.

Curious to eat insects? Curiosity as a Key Predictor of Willingness to try novel food

Entomophagy - the consumption of insects - is often rejected by Western society despite its benefits over traditional animal-based proteins. While several factors have been identified as potential predictors of people's willingness to try insect foods, this study introduced an under-explored factor: curiosity, which is a powerful motivator of behaviour that can overcome negative emotions and motivate us to seek new experiences. In two experiments (Ns = 240 and 248), participants (all UK residents, 99.6% British citizens) rated a number of food dishes, half of which contained insects, on a number of factors including curiosity and willingness to try the dish. Across both studies, curiosity predicted willingness to try both insect and non-insect foods above and beyond other factors. Furthermore, we unexpectedly (but consistently) observed a "curiosity-boosting effect" in which curiosity positively interacted with other predictors, increasing their effect on willingness to try insect foods, but not familiar foods. These findings suggest that curiosity promotes the willingness to try insect food in two different manners: A direct effect (above and beyond other factors) and a boosting effect.

Impact of Plant-Based Meat Alternatives on the Gut Microbiota of Consumers: A Real-World Study

Eating less meat is increasingly seen as a healthier, more ethical option. This is leading to growing numbers of flexitarian consumers looking for plant-based meat alternatives (PBMAs) to replace at least some of the animal meat they consume. Popular PBMA products amongst flexitarians, including plant-based mince, burgers, sausages and meatballs, are often perceived as low-quality, ultra-processed foods. However, we argue that the mere industrial processing of ingredients of plant origin does not make a PBMA product ultra-processed by default. To test our hypothesis, we conducted a randomised controlled trial to assess the changes to the gut microbiota of a group of 20 participants who replaced several meat-containing meals per week with meals cooked with PBMA products and compared these changes to those experienced by a size-matched control. Stool samples were subjected to 16S rRNA sequencing. The resulting raw data was analysed in a compositionality-aware manner, using a range of innovative bioinformatic methods. Noteworthy changes included an increase in butyrate metabolising potential-chiefly in the 4-aminobutyrate/succinate and glutarate pathways-and in the joint abundance of butyrate-producing taxa in the intervention group compared to control. We also observed a decrease in the Tenericutes phylum in the intervention group and an increase in the control group. Based on our findings, we concluded that the occasional replacement of animal meat with PBMA products seen in flexitarian dietary patterns can promote positive changes in the gut microbiome of consumers.

Plant-Based Seafood Analogs

There is a growing global need to shift from animal- towards plant-based diets. The main motivations are environmental/sustainability-, human health- and animal welfare concerns. The aim is to replace traditional animal-based food with various alternatives, predominantly plant-based analogs. The elevated consumption of fish and seafood, leads to negative impacts on the ecosystem, due to dwindling biodiversity, environmental damage and fish diseases related to large-scale marine farming, and increased intake of toxic substances, particularly heavy metals, which accumulate in fish due to water pollution. While these facts lead to increased awareness and rising dietary shifts towards vegetarian and vegan lifestyles, still the majority of seafood consumers seek traditional products. This encourages the development of plant-based analogs for fish and seafood, mimicking the texture and sensorial properties of fish-meat, seafood, or processed fish products. Mimicking the internal structure and texture of fish or seafood requires simulating their nanometric fibrous-gel structure. Common techniques of structuring plant-based proteins into such textures include hydrospinning, electrospinning, extrusion, and 3D printing. The conditions required in each technique, the physicochemical and functional properties of the proteins, along with the use of other non-protein functional ingredients are reviewed. Trends and possible future developments are discussed.