Exploring nano-enabled CRISPR-Cas-powered strategies for efficient diagnostics and treatment of infectious diseases

CRISPR-Based Biosensors for Medical Diagnosis: Readout from Detector-Dependence Detection Toward Naked Eye Detection

The detection of biomarkers (such as DNA, RNA, and protein) plays a vital role in medical diagnosis. The CRISPR-based biosensors utilize the CRISPR/Cas system for biometric recognition of targets and use biosensor strategy to read out biological signals without the employment of professional operations. Consequently, the CRISPR-based biosensors demonstrate great potential for the detection of biomarkers with high sensitivity and specificity. However, the signal readout still relies on specialized detectors, limiting its application in on-site detection for medical diagnosis. In this review, we summarize the principles and advances of the CRISPR-based biosensors with a focus on medical diagnosis. Then, we review the advantages and progress of CRISPR-based naked eye biosensors, which can realize diagnosis without additional detectors for signal readout. Finally, we discuss the challenges and further prospects for the development of CRISPR-based biosensors.

An investigation on antimicrobial and anticancer competence of macro red algae under in-vitro condition

The purpose of this study was to look into the proximate parameters (moisture, ash, total fat, protein, and total carbohydrate), mineral composition (Fe, Cu, Mg, and Zn), antimicrobial as well as cytotoxic (anticancer) properties of extracts from the marine red macro algae Gracilaria corticata, Chondrus ocellatus, and Posphyra perforata against a few prevalent microbial pathogens (Salmonella typhi, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Clostridium tetani, and Treponema pallidum as well as fungal pathogens such as Candida albicans, Aspergillus niger, and Cryptococcus neoformans) and two cancerous cell lines (HeLa and MCF7). The dry biomass of these red algae biomass contains considerable valuable proximate parameters and minerals. The diffusion technique on agar wells was used to evaluate the antimicrobial properties of these test red algae methanol and hexane extract; MTT assay was used to evaluate the cytotoxic effects of the methanol and hexane extracts on each cancer cell line. The methanol extracts demonstrated significant antimicrobial activity against most of the tested pathogenic organisms. Mortality of cells was effectively caused by methanol extract and it followed by hexane extract at increased dosage 10 mg mL-1. The MTT assay revealed that the methanol extract of the red algae was considerably cytotoxic to HeLa and MCF7 cells, accompanied by the hexane extract in a dose-dependent manner. These findings suggest that the methanol extract of these red algae may contain bioactive compounds with antimicrobial and anticancer properties, which could be studied for future use in the discovery of new drugs from marine ecosystems.

Rapid and sensitive detection of Salmonella in agro-Food and environmental samples: A review of advances in rapid tests and biosensors

Salmonella is as an intracellular bacterium, causing many human fatalities when the host-specific serotypes reach the host gastrointestinal tract. Nontyphoidal Salmonella are responsible for numerous foodborne outbreaks and product recalls worldwide whereas typhoidal Salmonella are responsible for Typhoid fever cases in developing countries. Yet, Salmonella-related foodborne disease outbreaks through its food and water contaminations have urged the advancement of rapid and sensitive Salmonella-detecting methods for public health protection. While conventional detection methods are time-consuming and ineffective for monitoring foodstuffs with short shelf lives, advances in microbiology, molecular biology and biosensor methods have hastened the detection. Here, the review discusses Salmonella pathogenic mechanisms and its detection technology advancements (fundamental concepts, features, implementations, efficiency, benefits, limitations and prospects). The time-efficiency of each rapid test method is discussed in relation to their limit of detections (LODs) and time required from sample enrichment to final data analysis. Importantly, the matrix effects (LODs and sample enrichments) were compared within the methods to potentially speculate Salmonella detection from environmental, clinical or food matrices using certain techniques. Although biotechnological advancements have led to various time-efficient Salmonella-detecting techniques, one should consider the usage of sophisticated equipment to run the analysis by moderately to highly trained personnel. Ultimately, a fast, accurate Salmonella screening that is readily executed by untrained personnels from various matrices, is desired for public health procurement.

Nanomaterials for intelligent CRISPR-Cas tools: improving environment sustainability

Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein (Cas) is a desirable gene modification tool covering a wide area in various sectors of medicine, agriculture, and microbial biotechnology. The role of this incredible genetic engineering technology has been extensively investigated; however, it remains formidable with cargo choices, nonspecific delivery, and insertional mutagenesis. Various nanomaterials including lipid, polymeric, and inorganic are being used to deliver the CRISPR-Cas system. Progress in nanomaterials could potentially address these challenges by accelerating precision targeting, cost-effectiveness, and one-step delivery. In this review, we highlighted the advances in nanotechnology and nanomaterials as smart delivery systems for CRISPR-Cas so as to ameliorate applications for environmental remediation including biomedical research and healthcare, strategies for mitigating antimicrobial resistance, and to be used as nanofertilizers for enhancing crop growth, and reducing the environmental impact of traditional fertilizers. The timely co-evolution of nanotechnology and CRISPR technologies has contributed to smart novel nanostructure hybrids for improving the onerous tasks of environmental remediation and biological sustainability.

Advanced drug delivery and therapeutic strategies for tuberculosis treatment

Tuberculosis (TB) remains a significant global health challenge, necessitating innovative approaches for effective treatment. Conventional TB therapy encounters several limitations, including extended treatment duration, drug resistance, patient noncompliance, poor bioavailability, and suboptimal targeting. Advanced drug delivery strategies have emerged as a promising approach to address these challenges. They have the potential to enhance therapeutic outcomes and improve TB patient compliance by providing benefits such as multiple drug encapsulation, sustained release, targeted delivery, reduced dosing frequency, and minimal side effects. This review examines the current landscape of drug delivery strategies for effective TB management, specifically highlighting lipid nanoparticles, polymer nanoparticles, inorganic nanoparticles, emulsion-based systems, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and hydrogels as promising approaches. Furthermore, emerging therapeutic strategies like targeted therapy, long-acting therapeutics, extrapulmonary therapy, phototherapy, and immunotherapy are emphasized. The review also discusses the future trajectory and challenges of developing drug delivery systems for TB. In conclusion, nanomedicine has made substantial progress in addressing the challenges posed by conventional TB drugs. Moreover, by harnessing the unique targeting abilities, extended duration of action, and specificity of advanced therapeutics, innovative solutions are offered that have the potential to revolutionize TB therapy, thereby enhancing treatment outcomes and patient compliance.

Innovative Biosensing Approaches for Swift Identification of Candida Species, Intrusive Pathogenic Organisms

Candida is the largest genus of medically significant fungi. Although most of its members are commensals, residing harmlessly in human bodies, some are opportunistic and dangerously invasive. These have the ability to cause severe nosocomial candidiasis and candidemia that affect the viscera and bloodstream. A prompt diagnosis will lead to a successful treatment modality. The smart solution of biosensing technologies for rapid and precise detection of Candida species has made remarkable progress. The development of point-of-care (POC) biosensor devices involves sensor precision down to pico-/femtogram level, cost-effectiveness, portability, rapidity, and user-friendliness. However, futuristic diagnostics will depend on exploiting technologies such as multiplexing for high-throughput screening, CRISPR, artificial intelligence (AI), neural networks, the Internet of Things (IoT), and cloud computing of medical databases. This review gives an insight into different biosensor technologies designed for the detection of medically significant Candida species, especially Candida albicans and C. auris, and their applications in the medical setting.

Biomaterials-mediated CRISPR/Cas9 delivery: recent challenges and opportunities in gene therapy

The use of biomaterials in delivering CRISPR/Cas9 for gene therapy in infectious diseases holds tremendous potential. This innovative approach combines the advantages of CRISPR/Cas9 with the protective properties of biomaterials, enabling accurate and efficient gene editing while enhancing safety. Biomaterials play a vital role in shielding CRISPR/Cas9 components, such as lipid nanoparticles or viral vectors, from immunological processes and degradation, extending their effectiveness. By utilizing the flexibility of biomaterials, tailored systems can be designed to address specific genetic diseases, paving the way for personalized therapeutics. Furthermore, this delivery method offers promising avenues in combating viral illnesses by precisely modifying pathogen genomes, and reducing their pathogenicity. Biomaterials facilitate site-specific gene modifications, ensuring effective delivery to infected cells while minimizing off-target effects. However, challenges remain, including optimizing delivery efficiency, reducing off-target effects, ensuring long-term safety, and establishing scalable production techniques. Thorough research, pre-clinical investigations, and rigorous safety evaluations are imperative for successful translation from the laboratory to clinical applications. In this review, we discussed how CRISPR/Cas9 delivery using biomaterials revolutionizes gene therapy and infectious disease treatment, offering precise and safe editing capabilities with the potential to significantly improve human health and quality of life.

CRISPR-Cas-Based Antimicrobials: Design, Challenges, and Bacterial Mechanisms of Resistance

The emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains is a source of public health concern across the globe. As the discovery of new conventional antibiotics has stalled significantly over the past decade, there is an urgency to develop novel approaches to address drug resistance in infectious diseases. The use of a CRISPR-Cas-based system for the precise elimination of targeted bacterial populations holds promise as an innovative approach for new antimicrobial agent design. The CRISPR-Cas targeting system is celebrated for its high versatility and specificity, offering an excellent opportunity to fight antibiotic resistance in pathogens by selectively inactivating genes involved in antibiotic resistance, biofilm formation, pathogenicity, virulence, or bacterial viability. The CRISPR-Cas strategy can enact antimicrobial effects by two approaches: inactivation of chromosomal genes or curing of plasmids encoding antibiotic resistance. In this Review, we provide an overview of the main CRISPR-Cas systems utilized for the creation of these antimicrobials, as well as highlighting promising studies in the field. We also offer a detailed discussion about the most commonly used mechanisms for CRISPR-Cas delivery: bacteriophages, nanoparticles, and conjugative plasmids. Lastly, we address possible mechanisms of interference that should be considered during the intelligent design of these novel approaches.

CRISPR/Cas9 Genome Editing for Tissue-Specific In Vivo Targeting: Nanomaterials and Translational Perspective

Clustered randomly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPRs) and its associated endonuclease protein, i.e., Cas9, have been discovered as an immune system in bacteria and archaea; nevertheless, they are now being adopted as mainstream biotechnological/molecular scissors that can modulate ample genetic and nongenetic diseases via insertion/deletion, epigenome editing, messenger RNA editing, CRISPR interference, etc. Many Food and Drug Administration-approved and ongoing clinical trials on CRISPR adopt ex vivo strategies, wherein the gene editing is performed ex vivo, followed by reimplantation to the patients. However, the in vivo delivery of the CRISPR components is still under preclinical surveillance. This review has summarized the nonviral nanodelivery strategies for gene editing using CRISPR/Cas9 and its recent advancements, strategic points of view, challenges, and future aspects for tissue-specific in vivo delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 components using nanomaterials.

New advances in the treatments of drug-resistant tuberculosis

INTRODUCTION

TB is associated with high mortality and morbidity among infected individuals and a high transmission rate from person to person. Despite the availability of vaccines and several anti-TB,TB infection continues to increase. Global resistance to TB remains the greatest challenge. There has not been extensive research into a new treatment and management strategy for TB resistance therapy. This review is based on a review of new advances and alternative drugs in the treatment of drug-resistant TB.

AREAS COVERED

New drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis therapy involves a combination of the latest TB drugs, new anti-TB drugs based on medicinal plant extracts for drug-resistant TB, mycobacteriophage therapy, the CRISPR/Cas9 system, and nanotechnology.

EXPERT OPINION

It is necessary to determine the function of individual gene alterations in drug-resistant TB. A combination of the most recent anti-TB drugs, such as bedaquiline and delamanid, is recommended. Longitudinal studies and animal model experiments with some medicinal plant extracts are required for better results. Nanotechnology has the potential to reduce drug side effects. Useful efficacy of phage therapy and CRISPR-cas9 technology as adjunct therapies for the management of drug-resistant TB.

Biogenic green metal nano systems as efficient anti-cancer agents

Metal/metal oxide nano systems (M-NSs) of tunable and manipulative properties are emerging suitable for cancer management via immunity development, early-stage diagnosis, nanotherapeutics, and targeted drug delivery systems. However, noticeable toxicity, off-targeted actions, lacking biocompatibility, and being expensive limit their acceptability. Moreover, involving high energy (top-down routes) and hazardous chemicals (bottom-up chemical routes) is altering human cycle. To manage such challenges, biomass (plants, microbes, animals) and green chemistry-based M-NSs due to scalability, affordability, are cellular, tissue, and organ acceptability are emerging as desired biogenic M-NSs for cancer management with enhanced features. The state-of-art and perspective of green metal/metal oxide nano systems (GM-NSs) as an efficient anti-cancer agent including, imaging, immunity building elements, site-specific drug delivery, and therapeutics developments are highlighted in this review critically. It is expected that this report will serve as guideline for design and develop high-performance GM-NSs for establishing them as next-generation anti-cancer agent capable to manage cancer in personalized manner.

PLGA microparticle formulations for tunable delivery of a nano-engineered filamentous bacteriophage-based vaccine: in vitro and in silico-supported approach

Bacteriophages have attracted great attention in the bioengineering field in diverse research areas from tissue engineering to therapeutic and clinical applications. Recombinant filamentous bacteriophage, carrying multiple copies of foreign peptides on protein capsid has been successfully used in the vaccine delivery setting, even if their plasma instability and degradation have limited their use on the pharmaceutical market. Encapsulation techniques in polymeric materials can be applied to preserve bacteriophage activity, extend its half-life, and finely regulate their release in the target environment. The main goal of this study was to provide tunable formulations of the bacteriophage encapsulated in polymeric microparticles (MPs). We used poly (lactic-co-glycolic-acid) as a biocompatible and biodegradable polymer with ammonium bicarbonate as a porogen to encapsulate bacteriophage expressing OVA (257-264) antigenic peptide. We demonstrate that nano-engineered fdOVA bacteriophages encapsulated in MPs preserve their structure and are immunologically active, inducing a strong immune response towards the delivered peptide. Moreover, MP encapsulation prolongs bacteriophage stability over time also at room temperature. Additionally, in this study, we show the ability of in silico-supported approach to predict and tune the release of bacteriophages. These results lay the framework for a versatile bacteriophage-based vaccine delivery system that could successfully generate robust immune responses in a sustained manner, to be used as a platform against cancer and new emerging diseases.

Graphical abstract

Synopsis: administration of recombinant bacteriophage-loaded PLGA microparticles for antigen delivery. PLGA microparticles release the bacteriophages, inducing activation of dendritic cells and enhancing antigen presentation and specific T cell response. Bacteriophage-encapsulated microneedles potentially can be administered into human body and generate robust immune responses.

Endosomal Escapable and Nuclear Localizing Cationic Polyaspartate-Based CRISPR Activation System for Preventing Respiratory Virus Infection by Specifically Inducing Interferon-λ

Global pandemics caused by viruses cause widespread panic and economic losses. The lack of specific antivirals and vaccines increases the spreading of viral diseases worldwide. Thus, alternative strategies are required to manage viral outbreaks. Here, we develop a CRISPR activation (CRISPRa) system based on polymeric carriers to prevent respiratory virus infection in a mouse model. A polyaspartate grafted with 2-(diisopropylamino) ethylamine (DIP) and nuclear localization signal peptides (NLS-MTAS fusion peptide) was complexed with plasmid DNA (pDNA) encoding dCas9-VPR and sgRNA targeting IFN-λ. The pH-sensitive DIP and NLS-MTAS groups were favor of endo-lysosomal escape and nuclear localization of pDNA, respectively. They synergistically improved gene transfection efficiency, resulting in significant reporter gene expression and IFN-λ upregulation in lung tissue. In vitro and in vivo prophylactic experiments showed that the non-viral CRISPRa system could prevent infection caused by H1N1 viruses with minimal inflammatory responses, presenting a promising prophylactic approach against respiratory virus infections.

Biodegradable and removable implants for controlled drug delivery and release application

Conventional drug delivery route has several limitations such as hepatic first-pass metabolism, gastric issues, hypersensitivity reactions, etc. Additionally, such approaches are not found to be patient compliant, especially for chronic diseases. Conversely, implantable, polymeric drug delivery systems provide prolonged as well as controlled release of drug from the device implanted in the body. This editorial summarizes various types of implantable drug delivery systems along with their associated advantages and challenges. Additionally, recent advances in this field such as shape memory-based polymeric implants and 3-D printed implants are also discussed carefully and critically.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) Assisted Biomedical Systems for Intelligent Healthcare

Artificial intelligence (AI) is a modern approach based on computer science that develops programs and algorithms to make devices intelligent and efficient for performing tasks that usually require skilled human intelligence. AI involves various subsets, including machine learning (ML), deep learning (DL), conventional neural networks, fuzzy logic, and speech recognition, with unique capabilities and functionalities that can improve the performances of modern medical sciences. Such intelligent systems simplify human intervention in clinical diagnosis, medical imaging, and decision-making ability. In the same era, the Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) emerges as a next-generation bio-analytical tool that combines network-linked biomedical devices with a software application for advancing human health. In this review, we discuss the importance of AI in improving the capabilities of IoMT and point-of-care (POC) devices used in advanced healthcare sectors such as cardiac measurement, cancer diagnosis, and diabetes management. The role of AI in supporting advanced robotic surgeries developed for advanced biomedical applications is also discussed in this article. The position and importance of AI in improving the functionality, detection accuracy, decision-making ability of IoMT devices, and evaluation of associated risks assessment is discussed carefully and critically in this review. This review also encompasses the technological and engineering challenges and prospects for AI-based cloud-integrated personalized IoMT devices for designing efficient POC biomedical systems suitable for next-generation intelligent healthcare.

Nanodevices for the Efficient Codelivery of CRISPR-Cas9 Editing Machinery and an Entrapped Cargo: A Proposal for Dual Anti-Inflammatory Therapy

In this article, we report one of the few examples of nanoparticles capable of simultaneously delivering CRISPR-Cas9 gene-editing machinery and releasing drugs for one-shot treatments. Considering the complexity of inflammation in diseases, the synergistic effect of nanoparticles for gene-editing/drug therapy is evaluated in an in vitro inflammatory model as proof of concept. Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs), able to deliver the CRISPR/Cas9 machinery to edit gasdermin D (GSDMD), a key protein involved in inflammatory cell death, and the anti-inflammatory drug VX-765 (GSDMD45CRISPR-VX-MSNs), were prepared. Nanoparticles allow high cargo loading and CRISPR-Cas9 plasmid protection and, thus, achieve the controlled codelivery of CRISPR-Cas9 and the drug in cells. Nanoparticles exhibit GSDMD gene editing by downregulating inflammatory cell death and achieving a combined effect on decreasing the inflammatory response by the codelivery of VX-765. Taken together, our results show the potential of MSNs as a versatile platform by allowing multiple combinations for gene editing and drug therapy to prepare advanced nanodevices to meet possible biomedical needs.

Nano-Neurogenesis for CNS Diseases and Disorders

Neurogenesis encompasses the formation and development of neurons in the mammalian brain, mainly occurring in hippocampus and the olfactory system. This process is rapid, accurate, and very sensitive to the external stressors including environment, diet, age, anxiety, stress, depression, diet, and hormones. The range of stressors is big and directly impacts the generation, maturation and migration, efficacy, and myelination of the neuronal cells. The field of regenerative medicine focuses on combating the direct or indirect effects of these stressors on the process of neurogenesis, and ensures increased general and neuronal communications and functioning. Understanding the deep secrets of brain signaling and devising ways to increase drug availability is tough, considering the complexity and intricate details of the neuronal networks and signaling in the CNS. It is imperative to understand this complexity and introduce potent and efficacious ways to combat diseases. This perspective offers an insight into how neurogenesis could be aided by nanotechnology and what plausible nanomaterials are available to culminate neurogenesis-related neurological disorders. The nanomaterials are promising as they are minute, robust, and effective and help in diagnostics and therapeutics such as drug delivery, maturation and neuroprotection, neurogenesis, imaging, and neurosurgery.

Phage delivered CRISPR-Cas system to combat multidrug-resistant pathogens in gut microbiome

The Host-microbiome interactions that exist inside the gut microbiota operate in a synergistic and abnormal manner. Additionally, the normal homeostasis and functioning of gut microbiota are frequently disrupted by the intervention of Multi-Drug Resistant (MDR) pathogens. CRISPR-Cas (CRISPR-associated protein with clustered regularly interspersed short palindromic repeats) recognized as a prokaryotic immune system has emerged as an effective genome-editing tool to edit and delete specific microbial genes for the expulsion of bacteria through bactericidal action. In this review, we demonstrate many functioning CRISPR-Cas systems against the anti-microbial resistance of multiple pathogens, which infiltrate the gastrointestinal tract. Moreover, we discuss the advancement in the development of a phage-delivered CRISPR-Cas system for killing a gut MDR pathogen. We also discuss a combinatorial approach to use bacteriophage as a delivery system for the CRISPR-Cas gene for targeting a pathogenic community in the gut microbiome to resensitize the drug sensitivity. Finally, we discuss engineered phage as a plausible potential option for the CRISPR-Cas system for pathogenic killing and improvement of the efficacy of the system.

CRISPR-Cas9-Based Technology and Its Relevance to Gene Editing in Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) and other chronic and debilitating neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) impose a substantial medical, emotional, and financial burden on individuals and society. The origin of PD is unknown due to a complex combination of hereditary and environmental risk factors. However, over the last several decades, a significant amount of available data from clinical and experimental studies has implicated neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, dysregulated protein degradation, and mitochondrial dysfunction as the primary causes of PD neurodegeneration. The new gene-editing techniques hold great promise for research and therapy of NDs, such as PD, for which there are currently no effective disease-modifying treatments. As a result, gene therapy may offer new treatment options, transforming our ability to treat this disease. We present a detailed overview of novel gene-editing delivery vehicles, which is essential for their successful implementation in both cutting-edge research and prospective therapeutics. Moreover, we review the most recent advancements in CRISPR-based applications and gene therapies for a better understanding of treating PD. We explore the benefits and drawbacks of using them for a range of gene-editing applications in the brain, emphasizing some fascinating possibilities.

Theragnostic application of nanoparticle and CRISPR against food-borne multi-drug resistant pathogens

Foodborne infection is one of the leading sources of infections spreading across the world. Foodborne pathogens are recognized as multidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogens posing a significant problem in the food industry and healthy consumers resulting in enhanced economic burden, and nosocomial infections. The continued search for enhanced microbial detection tools has piqued the interest of the CRISPR-Cas system and Nanoparticles. CRISPR-Cas system is present in the bacterial genome of some prokaryotes and is repurposed as a theragnostic tool against MDR pathogens. Nanoparticles and composites have also emerged as an efficient tool in theragnostic applications against MDR pathogens. The diagnostic limitations of the CRISPR-Cas system are believed to be overcome by a synergistic combination of the nanoparticles system and CRISPR-Cas using nanoparticles as vehicles. In this review, we have discussed the diagnostic application of CRISPR-Cas technologies along with their potential usage in applications like phage resistance, phage vaccination, strain typing, genome editing, and antimicrobial. we have also elucidated the antimicrobial and detection role of nanoparticles against foodborne MDR pathogens. Moreover, the novel combinatorial approach of CRISPR-Cas and nanoparticles for their synergistic effects in pathogen clearance and drug delivery vehicles has also been discussed.

Recent Advances in Electrochemical Biosensors for the Detection of Salmonellosis: Current Prospective and Challenges

Salmonellosis is a major cause of foodborne infections, caused by Salmonella, posing a major health risk. It possesses the ability to infiltrate the food supply chain at any point throughout the manufacturing, distribution, processing or quality control process. Salmonella infection has increased severely and requires effective and efficient methods for early monitoring and detection. Traditional methods, such as real-time polymerase chain reaction and culture plate, consume a lot of time and are labor-intensive. Therefore, new quick detection methods for on-field applications are urgently needed. Biosensors provide consumer-friendly approaches for quick on-field diagnoses. In the last few years, there has been a surge in research into the creation of reliable and advanced electrochemical sensors for the detection of Salmonella strains in food samples. Electrochemical sensors provide extensive accuracy and reproducible results. Herein, we present a comprehensive overview of electrochemical sensors for the detection of Salmonella by focusing on various mechanisms of electrochemical transducer. Further, we explain new-generation biosensors (microfluidics, CRISPR- and IOT-based) for point-of care applications. This review also highlights the limitations of developing biosensors in Salmonella detection and future possibilities.