Venous Thromboembolism in Physically Active People: Considerations for Risk Assessment, Mainstream Awareness and Future Research

Risk of venous thromboembolism in relation to high physical activity level in men over 27 year follow up

Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is the third most common type of cardiovascular disease. An association between high level of physical activity (PA) and the onset of VTE has been found in some, but not all previous studies. We aim to study the association between PA-level and VTE in a cohort of men with updated data on PA levels at four occasions. We used data from the Uppsala Longitudinal Study of Adult Men (ULSAM) study initiated in 1970, a study of men at age 50 years (n = 2,294 at baseline) examined on leisure time PA by questionnaire and traditional cardiovascular risk factors. Examinations were repeated at ages 60, 70, and 77, and follow-up was completed after a median time of 33 years. Cox regression analysis with hazard ratios (HRs) using updated covariates for PA and risk factors was performed on the association of PA levels with incident VTE, with adjustments for established cardiovascular risk factors (systolic blood pressure, LDL- and HDL-cholesterol, BMI, diabetes, and smoking). Totally 186 men experienced a VTE during follow-up of 68,263 person-years at risk. Individuals with the highest PA level had an increased relative risk of VTE, adjusted HR, 2.22 (95% CI 1.05-4.67), when compared to individuals with the lowest level of PA. In this cohort of men with a follow-up of 27 years, the risk of VTE was increased at the highest PA level. Findings indicate that there could be an increased VTE risk with higher PA level including strenuous activities.

Premature Death in Bodybuilders: What Do We Know?

Premature deaths in bodybuilders regularly make headlines and are cited as evidence that bodybuilding is a dangerous activity. A wealth of research has revealed elite athletes typically enjoy lower mortality rates than non-athletes, but research on bodybuilder lifespan is surprisingly limited. Anabolic androgenic steroid (AAS) use is commonly cited as a key contributor to morbidity and premature mortality in bodybuilders, but this area of research is highly nuanced and influenced by numerous confounders unique to bodybuilding. It is quite possible that bodybuilders are at elevated risk and that AAS use is the primary reason for this, but there remains much unknown in this realm. As global participation in bodybuilding increases, and healthcare providers play a more active role in monitoring bodybuilder health, there is a need to identify how numerous factors associated with bodybuilding ultimately influence short- and long-term health and mortality rate. In this Current Opinion, we discuss what is currently known about the bodybuilder lifespan, identify the nuances of the literature regarding bodybuilder health and AAS use, and provide recommendations for future research on this topic.

Sport and Venous Thromboembolism

BACKGROUND

The occurrence of venous thromboembolisms (VTE) in association with sporting activity has been described but not yet systematically explored. The aim of this study was to determine the sites at which VTE occur in athletes, the accompanying features, and the special features of the symptoms and diagnosis, so that physicians can take the findings into consideration.

METHODS

A search of the literature in the databases PubMed, Web of Science, and Cochrane in accordance with the PRISMA criteria, together with a search of Google Scholar up to 29 February 2020.

RESULTS

No observational studies were identified. A total of 154 case descriptions were evaluated: 89 on upper-extremity deep vein thrombosis (DVT), 53 on lower-extremity DVT, and 12 on pulmonary embolisms with no evidence of thrombosis. Ninety-five percent of the upper-extremity DVT involved the region of the subclavian/axillary vein. Thoracic outlet syndrome (38%), hereditary thrombophilia/a family history of VTE (16%), intensive training (12%), and the use of oral contraceptives (7%) were identified as accompanying features. The upper-extremity DVT occurred mainly in male strength athletes and ball sports players. The lower-extremity DVT were located in the lower leg/knee (30%), the thigh (19 %), or occurred in combination in the lower leg-to-pelvis region (30 %). The features accompanying lower-extremity DVT were hereditary thrombophilia/a family history of VTE (30%), trauma (25%), immobilization (21%), and the use of oral contraceptives (11%). The lower-extremity DVT were found in endurance sports and ball sports. The symptoms may be obscured by sport-specific symptoms/trauma, and diagnosis is often delayed. Early D-dimer determination is useful and is complemented by diagnostic imaging.

CONCLUSION

VTE are found in association with sports. The background factors, the sites of VTE, the types of sports involved, and the accompanying features are all important to know. The symptoms may be obscured, and it may be difficult to reach the correct diagnosis. The possible presence of DVT must be borne in mind.

Venous thromboemboli associated with acute aerobic exercise: A review of case report commonalities

Venous thromboembolic (VTE) events such as deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE) have been reported in otherwise low-risk healthy athletes following acute bouts of aerobic exercise.

PURPOSE

To review case reports and assess the commonalities of athletic individuals with VTE, as well as return-to-play (RTP) recommendations.

METHODS

We reviewed 47 reports (20 DVTs, 15 PEs, and 12 DVTs/PEs, 19 women) of trained individuals who were diagnosed with DVT and/or PE following aerobic exercise. We assessed frequency of VTE risk factors, presenting symptoms, and RTP recommendations.

RESULTS

The age of women (24.6 ± 7.0 years) was lower (P < .01) than of men (40.6 ± 13.6 years). Of the 19 women, 14 (73.7%) used oral contraceptives. Thirteen cases (27.7%) reported a recent period of prolonged inactivity (>1 hour), and another 12 cases were found to have an antithrombin disorder following testing after diagnosis. The most frequently reported symptoms were muscle pain in 26 of 32 (81.3%) DVT or DVT/PE cases, and dyspnea in 21 of 27 (77.8%) PE or DVT/PE cases. Despite these common symptoms, the estimated time from first report of symptoms to confirmed diagnosis was 56.3 ± 118.7 days and 25 cases (53.2%) were initially misdiagnosed. Twenty-three cases (48.9%) did not report RTP recommendations, and those which did varied widely.

CONCLUSIONS

Thirty-two cases (~70%) had at least one of three major risk factors, suggesting that many cases of VTE in athletes may be preventable with better education and awareness. The wide variety of RTP recommendations highlights the need for standardized guidelines in this population.

Deep Vein Thrombosis in a Young, Healthy Baseball Catcher: A Case Report and Review of the Literature

Venous thromboembolism is becoming increasingly recognized as a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in the hospitalized pediatric population. However, young healthy athletes can present with unique risk factors for deep vein thrombosis (DVT) that can be overlooked. Here we report a case of an adolescent male with no inherited risk factors or prior history of DVTs who developed a right femoral vein DVT in the context of playing catcher in baseball after recovering from a bout of streptococcal pharyngitis. We review the evidence that suggests that repetitive squatting-induced compression of the femoral vein can cause the venous stasis and endothelial microtrauma that contributed to the formation of this thrombus.

Interaction of a genetic risk score with physical activity, physical inactivity, and body mass index in relation to venous thromboembolism risk

INTRODUCTION

Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is highly heritable. Physical activity, physical inactivity and body mass index (BMI) are also risk factors, but evidence of interaction between genetic and environmental risk factors is limited.

METHODS

Data on 2,134 VTE cases and 3,890 matched controls were obtained from the Nurses' Health Study (NHS), Nurses' Health Study II (NHS II), and Health Professionals Follow-up Study (HPFS). We calculated a weighted genetic risk score (wGRS) using 16 single nucleotide polymorphisms associated with VTE risk in published genome-wide association studies (GWAS). Data on three risk factors, physical activity (metabolic equivalent [MET] hours per week), physical inactivity (sitting hours per week) and BMI, were obtained from biennial questionnaires. VTE cases were incident since cohort inception; controls were matched to cases on age, cohort, and genotype array. Using conditional logistic regression, we assessed joint effects and interaction effects on both additive and multiplicative scales. We also ran models using continuous wGRS stratified by risk-factor categories.

RESULTS

We observed a supra-additive interaction between wGRS and BMI. Having both high wGRS and high BMI was associated with a 3.4-fold greater risk of VTE (relative excess risk due to interaction = 0.69, p = 0.046). However, we did not find evidence for a multiplicative interaction with BMI. No interactions were observed for physical activity or inactivity.

CONCLUSION

We found a synergetic effect between a genetic risk score and high BMI on the risk of VTE. Intervention efforts lowering BMI to decrease VTE risk may have particularly large beneficial effects among individuals with high genetic risk.

Venous Thromboembolism Within Professional American Sport Leagues

Background

Numerous reports have described players in professional American sports leagues who have been sidelined with a deep vein thrombosis (DVT) or a pulmonary embolism (PE), but little is known about the clinical implications of these events in professional athletes.

Purpose

To conduct a retrospective review of injury reports from the National Hockey League (NHL), Major League Baseball (MLB), the National Basketball Association (NBA), and the National Football League (NFL) to take a closer look at the incidence of DVT/PE, current treatment approaches, and estimated time to return to play in professional athletes.

Study Design

Descriptive epidemiology study.

Methods

An online search of all team injury and media reports of DVT/PE in NHL, MLB, NBA, and NFL players available for public record was conducted by use of Google, PubMed, and SPORTDiscus. Searches were conducted using the professional team name combined with blood clot, pulmonary embolism, and deep vein thrombosis.

Results

A total of 55 venous thromboembolism (VTE) events were identified from 1999 through 2016 (NHL, n = 22; MLB, n = 16; NFL, n = 12; NBA, n = 5). Nineteen athletes were reported to have an upper extremity DVT, 15 had a lower extremity DVT, 15 had a PE, and 6 had DVT with PE. Six athletes sustained more than 1 VTE. The mean age at time of VTE was 29.3 years (range, 19-42 years). Mean (±SD) time lost from play was 6.7 ± 4.9 months (range, 3 days to career end). Seven athletes did not return to play. Players with upper extremity DVT had a faster return to play (mean ± SD, 4.3 ± 2.7 months) than those with lower extremity DVT (5.9 ± 3.8 months), PE (10.8 ± 6.8 months), or DVT with PE (8.2 ± 2.6 months) (F = 5.69, P = .002). No significant difference was found regarding time of return to play between sports.

Conclusion

VTE in professional athletes led to an average of 6.7 months lost from play. The majority of athletes were able to return to play after a period of anticoagulation or surgery. Those with an upper extremity DVT returned to play faster than those with other types of VTE. Further study is needed to look into modifiable risk factors for these events and to establish treatment and return-to-play guidelines to ensure the safety of these athletes.

Deep Vein Thrombosis and Pulmonary Embolism in a Mountain Guide: Awareness, Diagnostic Challenges, and Management Considerations at Altitude

High intensity exercise is associated with several potentially thrombogenic risk factors, including dehydration and hemoconcentration, vascular trauma, musculoskeletal injuries, inflammation, long-distance travel, and contraceptive usage. These are well documented in case reports of venous thrombosis in track and field athletes. For mountaineers and those working at high altitude, additional risks exist. However, despite there being a high degree of vigilance for "classic" conditions encountered at altitude (eg, acute mountain sickness, high altitude pulmonary edema, and high altitude cerebral edema), mainstream awareness regarding thrombotic conditions and their complications in mountain athletes is relatively low. This is significant because thromboembolic events (including deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, and cerebral vascular thrombosis) are not uncommon at altitude. We describe a case of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in a male mountain guide and discuss the diagnostic issues encountered by his medical practitioners. Potential risk factors affecting blood circulation (eg, seated car travel and compression of popliteal vein) and blood hypercoagulability (eg, hypoxia, environmental and psychological stressors [avalanche risk, extreme cold]) relevant to the subject of this report and mountain athletes in general are identified. Considerations for mitigating and managing thrombosis in addition to personalized care planning at altitude are discussed. The prevalence of thrombosis in mountain athletes is uncharted, but lowlanders increasingly go to high altitude to trek, ski, or climb. Blood clots can and do occur in physically active people, and thrombosis prevention and recognition will demand heightened awareness among participants, healthcare practitioners, and the altitude sport/leisure industry at large.