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Lisk C, Mische Lawson L, Sugiura B, Humpherys D, Rao G. Exploring Play Interactions of Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders and Their Pets. OTJR-OCCUPATION PARTICIPATION AND HEALTH 2024; 44:179-186. [PMID: 37485604 DOI: 10.1177/15394492231188311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/25/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this secondary qualitative analysis was to explore the play interactions of children with autism (n = 10) and their pets in the home environment. Researchers coded 115 minutes of video of children playing with their pets at home and transcripts from eight caregiver interviews. Thematic analysis revealed six codes which represented three themes, including children with ASD play with pets in a variety of ways, playing with pets supports child development, and playing with pets yields benefits for children with ASD. Findings suggest playing with pets may be beneficial for developing responsibility and social skills of children with ASD, particularly in how they interact with animals. Future research should examine perspectives of families who do not own or who have relinquished pets and perspectives of adults with ASD to better understand positive and negative aspects of pet play.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Gabbi Rao
- University of Kansas Medical Center, USA
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2
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Rodriguez KE, Rispoli M, Kelleher BL, MacLean EL, O’Haire ME. The effects of service dogs for children with autism spectrum disorder and their caregivers: a cross-sectional study. Front Psychiatry 2024; 15:1355970. [PMID: 38463432 PMCID: PMC10921415 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1355970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 02/08/2024] [Indexed: 03/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Service dogs are an increasingly popular complementary intervention for children with autism spectrum disorder. However, despite increasing demand, there remains a lack of empirical research on their potential benefits. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of service dogs on children with autism and their caregivers. Methods A total of N = 75 families of children with autism were recruited from a non-profit service dog provider in the US, including n = 39 families previously placed with a service dog and n = 36 families engaging in usual care while on the waitlist. Caregivers completed an online survey containing both self- and proxy-report standardized measures of child, caregiver, and family functioning. Linear regressions modeled the relationship between service dog presence and survey outcomes, controlling for relevant child and caregiver covariates. Results Results indicated that having a service dog was associated with significantly better child sleep behaviors, including better sleep initiation and duration and less sleep anxiety/co-sleeping with medium effect sizes. However, service dog presence was not significantly related to child withdrawal, negative emotionality, emotional self-control, hyperactivity, irritability, and lethargy with small effect sizes. For caregivers, having a service dog was not significantly related to standardized measures of caregiver strain, sleep disturbance, depression, or the impact of the child's condition on family functioning with small effect sizes. Supplemental matched case-control analyses confirmed these findings. Discussion In conclusion, service dogs were found to positively impact sleep behaviors among children with autism, but may not uniformly relate to other areas of child and caregiver wellbeing. Prospective longitudinal designs, larger sample sizes able to detect small effects, and studies that measure sleep using objective methods are needed to build on these findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerri E. Rodriguez
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Arizona, Oro Valley, AZ, United States
| | - Mandy Rispoli
- School of Education and Human Development, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, United States
| | - Bridgette L. Kelleher
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Evan L. MacLean
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Arizona, Oro Valley, AZ, United States
| | - Marguerite E. O’Haire
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Arizona, Oro Valley, AZ, United States
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3
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Beavers A, Fleming A, Shahidullah JD. Animal-assisted therapies for autism. Curr Probl Pediatr Adolesc Health Care 2023; 53:101478. [PMID: 37996312 DOI: 10.1016/j.cppeds.2023.101478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2023]
Abstract
Animal-assisted therapies have been increasingly used as part of treatment for a range of emotional-behavioral conditions and have more recently been incorporated into treatment for children with symptoms associated with autism spectrum disorder. Autism spectrum disorder affects one in 36 children and early interventions can be very effective. The aims of this paper are to: 1) provide background into animal-assisted therapies including a breakdown on the subtypes of therapies, 2) report broad summaries of research outcomes across various domains: social-emotional, physical, quality of life, behavioral skills, and adaptive skills, and 3) summarize key takeaways for pediatric practitioners when supporting families of youth with autism spectrum disorder who are interested in participating in animal-assisted therapy. This paper is not a systematic review or meta-analysis as several rigorous review studies have been published already. This paper is an overview of the background and research for pediatric practitioners when advising families on treatment options. Implications for future research are covered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Beavers
- Department of Pediatrics, Dell Children's Medical Group, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Antoinette Fleming
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Dell Medical School, The University of Texas, 1601 Trinity St., Health Discovery Building, 4th Floor, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Jeffrey D Shahidullah
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Dell Medical School, The University of Texas, 1601 Trinity St., Health Discovery Building, 4th Floor, Austin, TX 78712, USA.
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Tepper D, Shnookal J, Howell T, Bennett P. Can Interacting with Animals Improve Executive Functions? A Systematic Review. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:2080. [PMID: 37443878 DOI: 10.3390/ani13132080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Revised: 06/20/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
There has been growing interest in the potential benefits of using human-animal interactions to improve executive functions: cognitive processes that allow individuals to plan, solve problems, and self-regulate behaviour. To date, no comprehensive review has been conducted. The purpose of this study was to evaluate existing literature, adopting broad inclusion criteria. Following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, 16 papers were identified from peer-reviewed literature. Additional papers were identified from grey literature, including 6 dissertations and 1 thesis. A review of these 23 studies found that human-animal interactions and executive functions are investigated in three main ways: (1) exploring the potential benefits of the human-pet relationship, (2) exploring the impact of an animal's presence during administration of executive function tests, and (3) evaluating the efficacy of animal-assisted services (e.g., animal-assisted therapy) on executive functions. Five of the included studies reported a significant improvement across all measured domains of executive functions, but effect sizes were underreported. Comparatively, 9 studies reported mixed findings, d = 0.32-0.55, while 8 studies reported no significant results. The overall rigour of the research was limited, with great heterogeneity between the study methodologies and outcome measures used. It is recommended that future studies utilise high-quality research methodologies through the use of randomisation, pre- and postmeasures, and appropriate control conditions, where possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deanna Tepper
- School of Psychology and Public Health, La Trobe University, Bendigo, VIC 3550, Australia
| | - Joanna Shnookal
- School of Psychology and Public Health, La Trobe University, Bendigo, VIC 3550, Australia
| | - Tiffani Howell
- School of Psychology and Public Health, La Trobe University, Bendigo, VIC 3550, Australia
| | - Pauleen Bennett
- School of Psychology and Public Health, La Trobe University, Bendigo, VIC 3550, Australia
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Rehn AK, Caruso VR, Kumar S. The effectiveness of animal-assisted therapy for children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review. Complement Ther Clin Pract 2023; 50:101719. [PMID: 36599281 DOI: 10.1016/j.ctcp.2022.101719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2022] [Revised: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND and purpose Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) experience difficulty with communication, learning, behaviour, and social interactions. Animal-assisted therapy (AAT) is a growing alternative and complementary therapy for ASD. This review aims to investigate the effectiveness of AAT for children and adolescents with ASD in the domains of cognitive, social, emotional, behavioural, and physical. METHODS A systematic search of databases (Medline, Emcare, Embase, Cochrane Library, PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, Scopus, ERIC and OTseeker) was conducted in March 2022. Grey literature was also explored which included searching Trove database and the first 10 pages of Google, as well as pearling reference lists of included studies. This review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement. The methodological quality of the included studies was assessed using a modified Joanna Briggs Institute Review Form for Randomised Controlled Trials. A descriptive synthesis was undertaken due to heterogeneity within the evidence base. RESULTS Seven randomised controlled/clinical controlled trials with moderate methodological quality were included in this review. Overall, participation in AAT identified positive trends in the cognitive, social, emotional, behavioural, and physical domains. Despite the positive outcomes, implementation of AAT should be taken with caution as there are currently no standardised frameworks due to heterogeneity within the intervention protocols and outcome measures. CONCLUSION AAT may have positive effects across a multitude of outcomes in the management of ASD for children and adolescents. However, the current literature has considerable methodological concerns which should be addressed by future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy Kate Rehn
- UniSA Allied Health and Human Performance, University of South Australia, GPO Box 2471, Adelaide, South Australia, 5001, Australia.
| | - Victoria Rose Caruso
- UniSA Allied Health and Human Performance, University of South Australia, GPO Box 2471, Adelaide, South Australia, 5001, Australia.
| | - Saravana Kumar
- UniSA Allied Health and Human Performance, University of South Australia, GPO Box 2471, Adelaide, South Australia, 5001, Australia.
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Giraudet CSE, Liu K, McElligott AG, Cobb M. Are children and dogs best friends? A scoping review to explore the positive and negative effects of child-dog interactions. PeerJ 2022; 10:e14532. [PMID: 36570006 PMCID: PMC9774011 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.14532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Personal wellbeing is greatly influenced by our childhood and adolescence, and the relationships formed during those phases of our development. The human-dog bond represents a significant relationship that started thousands of years ago. There is a higher prevalence of dog ownership around the world, especially in households including children. This has resulted in a growing number of researchers studying our interactions with dogs and an expanding evidence base from the exploration of child-dog interactions. We review the potential effects of child-dog interactions on the physical, mental, and social wellbeing of both species. A search of the SCOPUS database identified documents published between January 1980 and April 2022. Filtering for key inclusion criteria, duplicate removals, and inspecting the references of these documents for additional sources, we reviewed a total of 393 documents, 88% of which were scientific articles. We were able to define the numerous ways in which children and dogs interact, be it neutral (e.g., sharing a common area), positive (e.g., petting), or negative (e.g., biting). Then, we found evidence for an association between childhood interaction with dogs and an array of benefits such as increased physical activities, a reduction of stress, and the development of empathy. Nonetheless, several detrimental outcomes have also been identified for both humans and dogs. Children are the most at-risk population regarding dog bites and dog-borne zoonoses, which may lead to injuries/illness, a subsequent fear of dogs, or even death. Moreover, pet bereavement is generally inevitable when living with a canine companion and should not be trivialized. With a canine focus, children sometimes take part in caretaking behaviors toward them, such as feeding or going for walks. These represent opportunities for dogs to relieve themselves outside, but also to exercise and socialize. By contrast, a lack of physical activity can lead to the onset of obesity in both dogs and children. Dogs may present greater levels of stress when in the presence of children. Finally, the welfare of assistance, therapy, and free-roaming dogs who may interact with children remains underexplored. Overall, it appears that the benefits of child-dog interactions outweigh the risks for children but not for dogs; determination of the effects on both species, positive as well as negative, still requires further development. We call for longitudinal studies and cross-cultural research in the future to better understand the impact of child-dog interactions. Our review is important for people in and outside of the scientific community, to pediatricians, veterinarians, and current or future dog owners seeking to extend their knowledge, and to inform future research of scientists studying dogs and human-animal interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire S. E. Giraudet
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Centre for Animal Health and Welfare, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Kai Liu
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Animal Health Research Centre, Chengdu Research Institute, City University of Hong Kong, Chengdu, China
| | - Alan G. McElligott
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Centre for Animal Health and Welfare, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Mia Cobb
- Animal Welfare Science Centre, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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Chen S, Zhang Y, Zhao M, Du X, Wang Y, Liu X. Effects of Therapeutic Horseback-Riding Program on Social and Communication Skills in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:14449. [PMID: 36361327 PMCID: PMC9655675 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192114449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2022] [Revised: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Animal-assisted therapy has become a fast-growing and effective approach for remediating core impairments of children with ASD; however, recent systematic review studies on the effects of AAT in children with ASD have some limitations, including referral to a variety of animal-assisted interventions rather than to horseback-riding therapy alone and the absence of any meta-analysis in systematic reviews. A complete systematic review of the studies that describe the use of THR as an intervention is needed to specifically target the core impairments of children with ASD. The purpose of this study was to employ the systematic review method to synthesize research findings regarding the effects of THR programs on the social interaction and communication skills of children with ASD. We conducted a structured search in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. We searched for potentially relevant studies in five databases (Web of Science, PubMed, CINAHL, Scopus, and SPORTDiscus) from inception until February 2022. In addition, we manually searched the bibliographies of the included studies to find articles that might otherwise have been missed. We considered articles eligible or ineligible if they satisfied specific inclusion or exclusion criteria. Our results showed that the THR program is an effective direct and alternative therapeutic program that can considerably improve the social behaviors and communication skills of children with ASD and can effectively impact autistic impairments in areas such as social awareness, social cognition, social motivation, and social communication. These findings are in line with those of previous studies; however, we did not find statistical evidence of any effect of THR on the autistic behaviors of irritability, stereotypy, and inappropriate speech. In conclusion, the findings produced by this meta-analysis study provide evidence that THR programs can considerably improve the social behaviors and communication skills of children with ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shihui Chen
- Department of Kinesiology, Texas A&M University, Texarkana, TX 75503, USA
| | - Yanjie Zhang
- Physical Education Unit, School of Humanities and Social Science, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen 518172, China
| | - Mengxian Zhao
- School of Physical Education, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Xiru Du
- College of Sport Arts, Guangzhou Sport University, Guangzhou 510075, China
| | - Yongtai Wang
- College of Health Sciences and Technology, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY 14623, USA
| | - Xiaolei Liu
- Chinese Traditional Regimen Exercise Intervention Research Center, Beijing Sport University, Beijing 100084, China
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Wagner C, Grob C, Hediger K. Specific and Non-specific Factors of Animal-Assisted Interventions Considered in Research: A Systematic Review. Front Psychol 2022; 13:931347. [PMID: 35837630 PMCID: PMC9274084 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.931347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Research on animal-assisted interventions (AAIs) has increased massively in the last few years. But it is still not clear how AAIs work and how important the animal is in such interventions. The aim of this systematic review was to compile the existing state of knowledge about the working mechanisms of AAIs. We searched 12 major electronic databases for previous AAI studies with active control groups. Of 2001 records identified, we included 172 studies in the systematic review. We extracted previously published hypotheses about working mechanisms and factors that have been implicitly considered specific or non-specific in AAI research by categorizing control conditions using content analysis. We analyzed the categories using descriptive statistics. We found that 84% of the included studies mentioned a hypothesis of working mechanisms, but 16% did not define specific hypotheses. By analyzing their control conditions, we found that in most controlled studies, the animal or the interaction with the animal was implicitly considered as a specific factor for the effects of the AAI. Non-specific factors such as therapeutic aspects, social interactions, or novelty have also been controlled for. We conclude that AAI research still cannot answer the question of how and why AAIs work. To address this important research gap, we suggest using component studies with innovative control conditions and results from placebo research to address both the specific and non-specific, contextual factors of AAIs to disentangle its mechanisms. Systematic Review Registration https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?RecordID=158103, identifier: CRD42020158103.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cora Wagner
- Division of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Faculty of Psychology, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Carmina Grob
- Division of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Faculty of Psychology, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Karin Hediger
- Division of Clinical Psychology and Animal-Assisted Interventions, Faculty of Psychology, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
- REHAB Basel, Clinic for Neurorehabilitation and Paraplegiology, Basel, Switzerland
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Human and Animal Health Unit, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Switzerland
- Faculty of Psychology, Open University, Heerlen, Netherlands
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Advancing Methods in Animal-Assisted Intervention: Demonstration of Starting Points in Clinical Practice for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Behav Anal Pract 2022; 16:145-155. [PMID: 37006431 PMCID: PMC10050646 DOI: 10.1007/s40617-022-00704-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Therapy animals have been frequently included in interventions for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD); however, direct and systematic procedures such as assessing preference for and reinforcing efficacy of the animals are rarely conducted. Assessing preference for stimuli is valuable when determining how to make interventions for children with ASD most effective. We conducted paired-stimulus preference assessments and follow-up reinforcer assessments to determine if a therapy dog might be an effective reinforcer. We found one third of participants preferred the dog the least, one third of participants moderately preferred the dog, and one third of participants highly preferred the dog relative to other stimuli. Furthermore, we found preference predicted reinforcing efficacy for five of six participants. We suggest clinicians systematically conduct assessments to clearly identify the role of the therapy animal, to improve quality of, and demonstrate efficacy of interventions including animals for clinical populations.
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Peters BC, Pan Z, Christensen H, Gabriels RL. Self-Regulation Mediates Therapeutic Horseback Riding Social Functioning Outcomes in Youth With Autism Spectrum Disorder. Front Pediatr 2022; 10:884054. [PMID: 35837236 PMCID: PMC9273942 DOI: 10.3389/fped.2022.884054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging evidence suggests therapeutic horseback riding improves self-regulation behaviors, social functioning, and language in youth with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). It has been theorized that interacting with horses is calming for youth with ASD, which may influence social and language outcomes. The current study is an exploratory secondary mediation analysis of a previously published randomized controlled trial of therapeutic horseback riding for youth with ASD. We hypothesized that self-regulation would mediate therapeutic horseback riding's effect on social and language outcomes in youth with ASD. Results indicate that self-regulation mediates therapeutic horseback riding's effect on social, but not language outcomes. This paper provides support for the hypothesis that interacting with horses may have a calming effect that serves as a platform for improving social outcomes in youth with autism.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Caitlin Peters
- Temple Grandin Equine Center, Department of Animal Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Zhaoxing Pan
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Denver, Denver, CO, United States
| | - Hannah Christensen
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Denver, Denver, CO, United States
| | - Robin L Gabriels
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Denver, Denver, CO, United States.,Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Denver, Denver, CO, United States
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