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Kroll MW, Wolf DA, Cobb JC, Greenberg TZ, Kunz SN, Brewer JE, Williams HE. Homicide Manner-of-Death Classification in Arrest-Related Death. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2024; 45:103-110. [PMID: 38411190 DOI: 10.1097/paf.0000000000000921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/28/2024]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Multiple studies have documented various factors that influence or determine forensic pathologist classification of manner of death. There do not appear to be any published studies on manner of death classification specifically regarding arrest-related deaths (ARDs). The goal of this study was to consider a large body of cases of nonfirearm ARDs to analyze the homicide classification with regards to numerous decedent and practitioner (medical examiner/coroner [ME/C]) variables. We analyzed 1145 US autopsy reports from the years 2006-2020, inclusive, and considered decedent variables of age, ethnicity, height, weight, body mass index, toxicology, and mention of a conducted electrical weapon and ME/C influence variables of gender, country region, and year. We found that the homicide classification likelihood increased by a factor of 1.04-1.05 per year, 1.34-1.37 for a female medical examiner, and 1.4-1.5 going from Southern states to Western states. There is an increasing trend for ME/C to label nonfirearm ARDs as homicides in the United States. The homicide classification is more common in Western states and less common in Southern states, and it was more common with a female ME/C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark W Kroll
- From the Biomedical Engineering, California Polytechnical Institute, San Luis Obispo, CA
| | | | - J Celia Cobb
- Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, Oklahoma City, OK
| | | | | | | | - Howard E Williams
- School of Criminal Justice and Criminology, Texas State University, San Marcos, TX
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Zhou YR, Liscio E, Ruffo HE, Doucette CM, Cao W. TASER CEW distance determination for models X26P, X2, and TASER 7. Forensic Sci Int 2023; 342:111520. [PMID: 36462472 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2022.111520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 11/19/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
TASER weapons, classified as Conducted Energy Weapons (CEWs) are used by law enforcement as electrical, non-lethal weapons. A CEW's long distance method of deployment launches two barbed probes that embed into the target, before electricity is cycled from one probe to the other. The resulting muscle contractions help incapacitate the intended target. Currently, there is no research on the accuracy of variability of CEW probe spread in determining the distance of the shooter. Thus, in this study, a method of distance determination for TASER models X26P, X2, and TASER 7 was established to help estimate the relative locations of individuals during crime scene reconstruction. Each of four probe cartridge types were launched for six repetitions towards vertical cardboard targets from three different distances (n = 72). The probe spread on the targets was measured for each cartridge and plotted against CEW-To-Target (CTT) distance. Linear regression trendlines and standard deviations were generated for each cartridge type. Results demonstrated probe spread distances to be proportional to probe launch angles, and greater CTT distances resulted in greater standard deviation. Standard error of the estimate was calculated for all four linear regression equations and their ability to predict CTT distance when given probe spread measurements. The mean standard error values appeared acceptable for the X2 (0.460 m), TASER 7 CQ (0.273 m), and X26P (0.322 m) CEW models, while the mean error calculated for the TASER 7 Standoff model (0.846 m) was considerably greater. We expect our findings will help establish a reliable method of distance determination for CEWs, and perhaps with a larger sample size, more thoroughly examine the accuracy of the linear regression equations. CEW distance determination has the potential to provide support in contextualizing crime scene reconstruction with further research. By providing distance estimations alongside a standardized guide of error allowance, it would be possible to induce how far apart individuals were at the time a CEW was fired, within the calculated window of deviation, and in a statistical degree of confidence.
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Kroll MW, Melinek J, Martin JA, Brave MA, Williams HE. Confusion between firearms and electrical weapons as a factor in police shootings. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 2022; 18:280-287. [PMID: 35067809 DOI: 10.1007/s12024-022-00457-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Conducted electrical weapons (CEW) have risks including trauma associated with uncontrolled falls, probes penetrating the eye, and fume ignition. A lesser-known risk is weapon-confusion error with officers mistakenly discharging their firearm when they intended to deploy their electrical weapon. We searched for incidents of possible weapon confusion with the TASER® brand CEWs via open-source media, litigation filings, and a survey of CEW law enforcement master instructors. We found 19 incidents of possible CEW weapon confusion in law enforcement field uses from January 2001 to April 2021. We eliminated a case as not meeting our criteria for probable weapons confusion leaving 18 cases, thus giving a demonstrated CEW discharge risk of 3.9 per million with confidence limits (2.4-6.2 per million) by Wilson score interval. Ipsilateral carry of the weapons was historically correlated with increased risk vs. contralateral carry. Officer gender was not a predictor of weapon confusion. The psychological issues behind weapon confusion under stress are discussed. The concurrent carry of electrical weapons and firearms presents a very small but real risk of injury and death from confusion between an electrical weapon and a firearm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark W Kroll
- Biomedical Engineering, California Polytechnical Institute, San Luis Obispo, USA.
| | | | | | | | - Howard E Williams
- School of Criminal Justice and Criminology, Texas State University, San Marcos, TX, USA
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Birngruber CG, Ohlwärther TEN, Weyrich A, Dettmeyer RB. Tod nach Einsatz eines Distanzelektroimpulsgerätes (TASER X2). Rechtsmedizin (Berl) 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s00194-022-00569-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Elektroschockdistanzwaffen Taser® X2 und T7. Notf Rett Med 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10049-020-00791-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
ZusammenfassungDie medizinische Beurteilung von Verletzungen und potenzieller todesursächlicher Relevanz einer Stromexposition durch eine Elektroschockdistanzwaffe beschränkt sich nicht allein auf die situativen Gegebenheiten und die morphologische Befunderhebung, sondern beinhaltet auch eine intensive Analyse polizeilicher Ermittlungen und die Auswertung von Zeugenaussagen sowie vorangegangener medizinischer Maßnahmen. Insbesondere bei zeitlich relevanter Nähe zwischen Exposition und Todeseintritt muss die Wirkung der übertragenen Stromimpulse in Zusammenhang mit der meist komplexen Einsatzsituation und der medizinischen Vorgeschichte des Geschädigten beurteilt werden. Ein detailliertes Wissen über die konkrete und auch abstrakte Wirkungsweise, Wirksamkeit und Risiken von Elektroschockdistanzwaffen ist hierfür unabdingbar.
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Kroll MW, Perkins PE, Chiles BD, Pratt H, Witte KK, Luceri RM, Brave MA, Panescu D. Output of Electronic Muscle Stimulators: Physical Therapy and Police Models Compared. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 2021; 2021:1264-1268. [PMID: 34891516 DOI: 10.1109/embc46164.2021.9630233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Both physical therapists and police officers use electrical muscle stimulation. The typical physical therapist unit is attached with adhesive patches while the police models use needle-based electrodes to penetrate clothing. There have been very few papers describing the outputs of these physical therapy EMS (electrical muscle stimulator) units. METHODS We purchased 6 TENS/EMS units at retail and tested them with loads of 500 Ω, 2 kΩ, and 10 kΩ. RESULTS For the typical impedance of 500 Ω, the EMS units delivered the most current followed by the electrical weapons; TENS units delivered the least current. At higher im-pedances (> 2 kΩ) the electrical weapons delivered more current than the EMS units, which is explained by the higher voltage-compliance of their circuits. Some multi channel EMS units deliver more calculated muscle stimula tion than the multi-channel weapons. CONCLUSION Present therapeutic electrical muscle stimula-tors can deliver more current than present law-enforcement muscle stimulators.
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Chiles BD, Nerheim MH, Markle RC, Brave MA, Panescu D, Kroll MW. Detection of Arcing and High Impedance with Electrical Weapons. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 2021; 2021:1252-1256. [PMID: 34891514 DOI: 10.1109/embc46164.2021.9629836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Conducted electrical weapons are primarily designed to stop subjects from endangering themselves or others by deploying 2, or more, probes to conduct current via the body to induce motor-nerve mediated muscle contractions, but probe impedance can vary significantly including open circuits from probes failing to complete or maintain a circuit. METHODS We tested 10 units of the TASER® 7 model with a range of impedances and open circuit conditions. Pulse data (stored in the device's memory) were used to predict the load resistances and detect arcing conditions. Acoustical data (recorded externally) was evaluated on an exploratory basis as a secondary goal. RESULTS The average error of predicted resistance, over the physiological load range of 400-1000 Ω, was 8%. Arcing conditions was predicted with an accuracy of 97%. An arcing condition increases the duration of the sound generation. CONCLUSIONS The TASER 7 electronic control device stored pulse-log data for charge and arc voltage yielded forensic analysis of the load resistance with reliable accuracy.
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Chiles BD, Nerheim MH, Markle RC, Brave MA, Panescu D, Kroll MW. Estimation of Physiological Impedance from Neuromuscular Pulse Data. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 2021; 2021:1246-1251. [PMID: 34891513 DOI: 10.1109/embc46164.2021.9630202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION A Conducted Electrical Weapon (CEW) deploys 2, or more, probes to conduct current via the body to induce motor-nerve mediated muscle contractions, but the inter-probe resistances can vary and this can affect charge delivery. For this reason, newer generation CEWs such as the TASER® X3, X2 and X26P models have feed-forward control circuits to keep the delivered charge constant regardless of impedance. Our main goal was to explore the load limits for this "charge metering" system. A secondary goal was to evaluate the reliability of the "Pulse Log" stored data to estimate the load resistance. METHODS We tested 10 units each of the X2 (double shot), X26P, and X26P+ (single-shot) CEW models. We used non-inductive high-voltage resistor assemblies of 50, 200, 400, 600, 1k, 2.5k, 3.5k, 5k, and 10k Ω, a shorted output (nominal 0 Ω), and arcing open-circuits. The Pulse Log data were downloaded to provide the charge value and stimulation and arc voltages for each of the pulses in a 5 s standard discharge cycle. RESULTS The average reported raw charge was 65.4 ± 0.2 µC for load resistances < 1 kΩ consistent with specifications for the operation of the feed-forward design. At load resistances ≥ 1 kΩ, the raw charge decreased with increasing load values. Analyses of the Pulse Logs, using a 2-piece multiple regression model, were used to predict all resistances. For the resistance range of 0 - 1 kΩ the average error was 53 Ω; for 1 kΩ - 10 kΩ it was 16%. Muzzle arcing can be detected with a model combining parameter variability and arcing voltage. CONCLUSIONS The X2, X26P, and X26P+ electrical weapons deliver an average charge of 65 µC with a load resistance < 1 kΩ. For loads ≥ 1 kΩ, the metered charge decreased with increasing loads. The stored pulse-log data for the delivered charge and arc voltage allowed for methodologically-reliable forensic analysis of the load resistance with useful accuracy.
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Police shootings after electrical weapon seizure: homicide or suicide-by-cop. Int J Legal Med 2021; 135:2547-2554. [PMID: 34318353 DOI: 10.1007/s00414-021-02648-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Risks of handheld electrical weapons include head impact trauma associated with uncontrolled falls, ocular probe penetration injuries, thermal injuries from the ignition of volatile fumes, and weapon confusion police-involved shooting. There is also an uncommon but critical risk of a shooting after a subject gained control of an officer's electrical weapons. METHODS The authors searched for police shooting incidents involving loss of control of TASER® weapons via open-source media reports, crowd-sourced internet sites, litigation filings, and a survey of Axon law-enforcement master instructors. RESULTS The authors report 131 incidents of subjects attempting to or gaining control of an officer's electrical weapon from 2004 to 2020, 53 of which resulting in a shooting. These incidents demonstrated a risk of 11.8 shootings per million electrical weapon discharges (95% confidence limits of 9.0 to 15.1 per million by Wilson score interval). CONCLUSIONS The use of electrical weapons presents a rare but real risk of injury and death from a shooting following a subject's attempts to gain control of the weapon.
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Plenzig S, Verhoff MA, Gruber H, Kunz SN. Aspiration-related pneumonia after Taser exposure - A multiple causations mechanism. Forensic Sci Int 2021; 326:110906. [PMID: 34298206 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2021.110906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Revised: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Arrest-related deaths in the context of Conducted Electrical Weapon (CEW) deployment are rare. The evaluation of such complex events is a challenge for the forensic scientist. We present a case of a 49-year old man, who was exposed to a Taser X26P during a confrontation with the police. He lost consciousness, vomited, aspirated and died after having been hospitalized for several days at the ICU. Based on the patient´s medical history, autopsy findings, witness testimonies, and reliable clinical and toxicological blood parameters, the most probable cause and mechanisms of his death are discussed. The present work demonstrates, based on one case report, the possibilities as well as limitations of forensic assessment in CEW-related deaths.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Plenzig
- Institute of Forensic Medicine Frankfurt, Germany; Goethe, Universität Frankfurt, Germany
| | - M A Verhoff
- Institute of Forensic Medicine Frankfurt, Germany; Goethe, Universität Frankfurt, Germany
| | - H Gruber
- Institute of Forensic Medicine Frankfurt, Germany; Goethe, Universität Frankfurt, Germany
| | - S N Kunz
- Institue of Forensic Medicine, Ulm University Hospital, Germany; Ulm University, Germany.
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Kroll MW, Witte KK, Calkins H, Luceri RM. Electrical Weapons and Electrophysiology. JACC Case Rep 2020; 2:2048-2049. [PMID: 34317105 PMCID: PMC8299251 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaccas.2020.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mark W. Kroll
- University of Minnesota, Biomedical Engineering, Box 23, Crystal Bay, Minnesota 55323
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Kroll MW, Witte KK, Ritter MB, Kunz SN, Luceri RM, Criscione JC. Electrical weapons and rhabdomyolysis. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 2020; 17:58-63. [PMID: 32946064 DOI: 10.1007/s12024-020-00311-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
It has been suggested that an application of a conducted electrical weapon (CEW) might cause muscle injury such as rhabdomyolysis and an acute inflammatory response. We explored this hypothesis by testing the effects of electrical weapons on circulating markers of inflammation and muscle damage. In a prospective study, 29 volunteers received a full-trunk 5-s TASER® X26(E) CEW exposure. Venous blood samples were taken before, 5 min after, and at 24 h following the discharge. We tested for changes in serum levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), myoglobin, albumin, globulin, albumin/globulin ratio, aspartate and alanine aminotransferase, creatine kinase, total protein, bilirubin, and lactic acid dehydrogenase. Uncorrected CRP and myoglobin levels were lower in the immediate post exposure period (CRP levels 1.44 ± 1.39 v 1.43 ± 1.32 mg/L; p = 0.046 and myoglobin 36.8 ± 11.9 v 36.1 ± 13.9 μg/L; p = 0.0019) but these changes were not significant after correction for multiple comparisons. There were no changes in other biomarkers. At 24 h, CRP levels had decreased by 30% to 1.01 ± 0.80 mg/L (p = 0.001 from baseline). ALP was unchanged immediately after the CEW application but was reduced by 5% from baseline (66.2 ± 16.1 to 62.7 ± 16.1 IU/L; p = 0.0003) at 24 h. No other biomarkers were different from baseline at 24 h. A full-trunk electrical weapon exposure did not lead to clinically significant changes in the acute phase protein levels or changes in measures of muscle cellular injury. We found no biomarker evidence of rhabdomyolysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark W Kroll
- University of Minnesota, Box 23, Crystal Bay, MN, 55323, USA.
| | - Klaus K Witte
- Leeds Inst. of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | | | - Sebastian N Kunz
- Institute for Forensic Medicine, University Hospital Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Richard M Luceri
- Holy Cross Hospital, 4725 N. Federal Hwy, Ft. Lauderdale, FL, 33308, USA
| | - John C Criscione
- Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
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Kroll MW, Witte KK, Kunz SN, Luceri RM, Criscione JC. Electrical weapons, hematocytes, and ischemic cardiovascular accidents. J Forensic Leg Med 2020; 73:101990. [PMID: 32658748 DOI: 10.1016/j.jflm.2020.101990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2019] [Revised: 05/17/2020] [Accepted: 05/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There have been case reports following the use of a conducted electrical weapon (CEW) suggesting that these devices might affect coagulation or thrombosis in at-risk individuals. The aim of this manuscript therefore is firstly to explore this hypothesis by reviewing each of these cases and secondly to report the results of a prospective study exploring a priori the effects of electrical weapons on hematocytes in a group of human volunteers. METHODS First, we systematically reviewed all cases of adverse outcomes following CEW discharge that could be due to an effect on coagulation or thrombosis, with particular focus on the clinical scenario and its relationship with the weapon discharge. Second, we assessed hematocyte levels in venous blood from 29 volunteers before, 5 min after, and 24 h after receiving a full-trunk 5-s TASER® X26(E) CEW exposure. RESULTS Following extensive review of the literature, we found 3 relevant case reports of possible vascular thromboembolic clinical events after CEW exposure, specifically a case of ischemic stroke, and 2 cases of ST-segment elevation myocardial infarctions. Review of these published cases failed to establish a plausible linkage to the CEW beyond a temporal association with significant emotional and physiological stress from a violent struggle. Our prospective study of biomarker change following CEW discharge revealed acutely increased values for WBC (white blood cells), specifically lymphocytes and monocytes, and a raised platelet count. Neutrophil levels decreased as a percentage of WBC. While these changes were statistically significant at 5 min, all results remained within established reference ranges. At 24 h, all values had returned to baseline except total WBC which decreased to slightly below baseline but was still within the normal reference range. CONCLUSIONS A review of clinical cases, of ischemic or thrombotic events revealed no direct association with the CEW discharge. A full-trunk electrical weapon exposure did not lead to hematocyte changes beyond normal clinically expected variations in similar acute response scenarios. The case report and biomarker data do not support the hypothesis that a CEW discharge is associated with changes likely to promote coagulation or thrombus formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark W Kroll
- University of Minnesota, Box 23, Crystal Bay, MN, 55323, USA.
| | - Klaus K Witte
- Leeds Inst. of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, Univ. of Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Sebastian N Kunz
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, University Hospital Ulm and Ulm University, Germany
| | - Richard M Luceri
- Holy Cross Hospital, 4725 N. Federal Hwy, Ft. Lauderdale, FL, 33308, USA
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