1
|
Friehs MA, Klarkowski M, Frommel J, Phillips C, Mandryk RL. Fighting fair: community perspectives on the fairness of performance enhancement in esports. Front Sports Act Living 2024; 6:1330755. [PMID: 38532852 PMCID: PMC10963441 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2024.1330755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Accepted: 03/04/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Aims This study aims to explore community perspectives on enhancer usage in competitive gaming and esports, focusing on the perception of fairness and concerns about various potential performance enhancers. Methods We conducted both qualitative and quantitative surveys to understand the competitive gaming community's opinions on different types of performance enhancers and their potential impact on esports. A thematic analysis was performed to identify key themes in how players rationalize their opinions. Conclusions The gaming community differentiates between potential performance enhancers based on how problematic they are for the esports scene, with the most concern surrounding hard drugs, pharmaceuticals, and brain stimulation interventions. Participants who are more invested in competitive gaming tend to be more sceptical of enhancers and express greater concerns. Four themes were identified in the thematic analysis: (1) risk, (2) morality, (3) enhancer effects, and (4) regulation. To increase acceptance and perceived legitimacy in decision-making, it is recommended that regulators engage a variety of stakeholders in transparent decision-making processes when forming tournament rules and regulations. This will help address the fragmented regulatory landscape and prevent potential differences in the perception of tournament winners based on the governing body supervising the competition.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maximilian A. Friehs
- Psychology of Conflict Risk and Safety, University of Twente, Enschede, Netherlands
- School of Psychology, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- Max-Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Madison Klarkowski
- Human-Computer Interaction Lab, Department of Computer Science, University of Saskatchewan, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Julian Frommel
- Interaction Media Group, Information and Computing Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Cody Phillips
- Human-Computer Interaction Lab, Department of Computer Science, University of Saskatchewan, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Regan L. Mandryk
- Faculty of Computer Science, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Böer NT, Weigelt M, Schütz C, Güldenpenning I. Practice reduces the costs of producing head fakes in basketball. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2024; 88:523-534. [PMID: 37831215 PMCID: PMC10858151 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-023-01885-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/30/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023]
Abstract
Previous research indicates that performing passes with a head fake in basketball leads to increased response initiation times and errors as compared to performing a pass without a head fake. These so-called fake production costs only occurred when not given the time to mentally prepare the deceptive movement. In the current study, we investigated if extensive practice could reduce the cognitive costs of producing a pass with head fake. Twenty-four basketball novices participated in an experiment on five consecutive days. A visual cue prompted participants to play a pass with or without a head fake either to the left or right side. The cued action had to be executed after an interstimulus interval (ISI) of either 0 ms, 400 ms, 800 ms or 1200 ms, allowing for different movement preparation times. Results indicated higher response initiation times (ITs) and error rates (ERs) for passes with head fakes for the short preparation intervals (ISI 0 ms and 400 ms) on the first day but no difference for the longer preparation intervals (ISI 800 ms and 1200 ms). After only one day of practice, participants showed reduced fake production costs (for ISI 0 ms) and were even able to eliminate these cognitive costs when given time to mentally prepare the movement (for ISI 400 ms). Accordingly, physical practice can reduce the cognitive costs associated with head-fake generation. This finding is discussed against the background of the strengthening of stimulus response associations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nils Tobias Böer
- Department of Sport & Health, Paderborn University, Warburger Str. 100, 33098, Paderborn, Germany.
| | - Matthias Weigelt
- Department of Sport & Health, Paderborn University, Warburger Str. 100, 33098, Paderborn, Germany
| | - Christoph Schütz
- Faculty of Psychology and Sports Science, Bielefeld University, Universitätsstraße 25, 33615, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Iris Güldenpenning
- Department of Sport & Health, Paderborn University, Warburger Str. 100, 33098, Paderborn, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Holczer A, Vékony T, Klivényi P, Must A. Frontal two-electrode transcranial direct current stimulation protocols may not affect performance on a combined flanker Go/No-Go task. Sci Rep 2023; 13:11901. [PMID: 37488206 PMCID: PMC10366169 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-39161-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) has been tested to modulate cognitive control or response inhibition using various electrode montages. However, electrode montages and current polarities have not been systematically compared when examining tDCS effects on cognitive control and response inhibition. In this randomized, sham-controlled study, 38 healthy volunteers were randomly grouped into receiving one session of sham, anodal, and cathodal each in an electrode montage that targeted either the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) or the fronto-medial (FM) region. Participants performed a combined flanker Go/No-Go task during stimulation. No effect of tDCS was found in the DLPFC and FM groups neither using anodal nor cathodal stimulation. No major adverse effects of tDCS were identified using either montage or stimulation type and the two groups did not differ in terms of the reported sensations. The present study suggests that single-session tDCS delivered in two two-electrode montages might not affect cognitive control or response inhibition, despite using widely popular stimulation parameters. This is in line with the heterogeneous findings in the field and calls for further systematic research to exclude less reliable methods from those with more pronounced effects, identify the determinants of responsiveness, and develop optimal ways to utilize this technique.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adrienn Holczer
- Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Albert Szent-Györgyi Health Centre, University of Szeged, Semmelweis u. 6, Szeged, Hungary.
| | - Teodóra Vékony
- Centre de Recherche en Neurosciences de Lyon CRNL U1028 UMR5292, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, INSERM, 95 Boulevard Pinel, 69500, Bron, France
| | - Péter Klivényi
- Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Albert Szent-Györgyi Health Centre, University of Szeged, Semmelweis u. 6, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Anita Must
- Chronos Systems on behalf of WCG Clinical Endpoint Solutions, Budapest, Hungary
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Zhu Y, Wu D, Sun K, Chen X, Wang Y, He Y, Xiao W. Alpha and Theta Oscillations Are Causally Linked to Interference Inhibition: Evidence from High-Definition Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation. Brain Sci 2023; 13:1026. [PMID: 37508958 PMCID: PMC10377194 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci13071026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/29/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: The Go/NoGo task and color-word Stroop task were used to investigate the effect of applying different frequency bands of neural oscillations to the lDLPFC on inhibitory control modulation. (2) Methods: Participants were randomly categorized into four groups and received HD-tACS at 6, 10, and 20 Hz or sham stimulation at 1.5 mA for 20 min. All participants performed a color-word Stroop task and Go/NoGo task before and immediately after the stimulation; closed-eye resting-state EEG signals were acquired for 3 min before and after the tasks. (3) Results: There were no significant differences in the Go/NoGo behavioral indices task across the four groups. In the color-word Stroop task, the Stroop effect of response time was significantly reduced by 6 and 10 Hz stimulations compared to sham stimulation, and the Stroop effect of accuracy was significantly reduced by 10 Hz stimulation. There were no significant differences in the frequency range-specific (delta, theta, alpha, beta, or gamma) resting EEG power before and after stimulation. (4) Conclusions: HD-tACS at 6 and 10 Hz effectively improved participants' performance on the color-word Stroop task, demonstrating the importance of the lDLPFC in interference inhibition and supporting a causal relationship between theta and alpha oscillations in interference inhibition.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yan Zhu
- Department of Military Medical Psychology, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an 710032, China
| | - Di Wu
- Department of Military Medical Psychology, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an 710032, China
| | - Kewei Sun
- Department of Military Medical Psychology, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an 710032, China
| | - Xianglong Chen
- Department of Military Medical Psychology, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an 710032, China
| | - Yifan Wang
- Department of Military Medical Psychology, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an 710032, China
| | - Yang He
- Department of Military Medical Psychology, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an 710032, China
| | - Wei Xiao
- Department of Military Medical Psychology, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an 710032, China
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Perrey S. Probing the Promises of Noninvasive Transcranial Electrical Stimulation for Boosting Mental Performance in Sports. Brain Sci 2023; 13:brainsci13020282. [PMID: 36831825 PMCID: PMC9954379 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci13020282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Revised: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
While the importance of physical abilities is noncontested to perform in elite sport, more focus has recently been turned toward cognitive processes involved in sport performance. Practicing any sport requires a high demand of cognitive functioning including, but not limited to, decision-making, processing speed, working memory, perceptual processing, motor functioning, and attention. Noninvasive transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) has recently attracted considerable scientific interest due to its ability to modulate brain functioning. Neuromodulation apparently improves cognitive functions engaged in sports performance. This opinion manuscript aimed to reveal that tES is likely an adjunct ergogenic resource for improving cognitive processes, counteracting mental fatigue, and managing anxiety in elite athletes. Nevertheless, the first evidence is insufficient to guarantee its real effectiveness and benefits. All tES techniques could be add-ons to make performance-related cognitive functions more efficient and obtain better results. Modulating inhibitory control through tES over the frontal cortex might largely contribute to the improvement of mental performance. Nevertheless, studies in elite athletes are required to assess the long-term effects of tES application as an ergogenic aid in conjunction with other training methods (e.g., neurofeedback, mental imagery) where cognitive abilities are trainable.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stephane Perrey
- EuroMov Digital Health in Motion, Univ Montpellier, IMT Mines Ales, 34090 Montpellier, France
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Kamali AM, Ijadi M, Keshtkarhesamabadi B, Kazemiha M, Mahmoudi R, Roozbehi A, Nami M. A dual-mode neurostimulation approach to enhance athletic performance outcome in experienced taekwondo practitioners. Sci Rep 2023; 13:251. [PMID: 36604440 PMCID: PMC9816304 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-26610-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2022] [Accepted: 12/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) is a growing empirical approach to improve athletic performance. Some recent studies have investigated the effects of transcutaneous spinal direct current stimulation (tsDCS) on the motor performance such as reaction time. TDCS and tsDCS can lead to alteration of the spontaneous neural activity, and the membrane potentials of motor neurons in cerebral cortex and spinal interneurons, respectively. Given the paucity of experimental studies on the non-invasive brain stimulation in the field of sports neuroscience, especially martial sports, the present study aimed at investigating the effects of neurostimulation in potentiating the motor and cognitive functions in experienced taekwondo practitioners. The study sample included 15 experienced male taekwondo players who received real or sham direct current stimulation on the primary motor cortex (M1) and the lumbar spinal segment (T12-L2) over two sessions, 72 h apart. Next, the performance of the participants was evaluated through a simulation of taekwondo exercise directly after the sham and real sessions. Moreover, a cognitive platform (CBS: Cambridge Brain Science) was used to investigate the participants' cognitive profile in each instance. Unlike sham stimulation, real tDCS was associated with improved selective attention and reaction time in both in the simulated task performance and cognitive examination. The concurrent cortical and trans-spinal tDCS was found to improve selective attention (31% performance improvement) (P < 0.0001) [EFFECT SIZE; 1.84]. and reduce reaction time (4.7% performance improvement) (P < 0.0001) [EFFECT SIZE; 0.02]. Meanwhile, the intervention failed to leave a significant change in cognitive functions evaluated through CBS (P > 0.05). As informed by our results, the present dual-mode neurostimulation could improve motor functions potentially through the effect of tsDCS over the spinal interneurons and tDCS over the primary motor cortex. Likewise, our findings suggested an improved performance in simulated taekwondo task after real- but not sham-stimulation. This study paves the way for designing neurostimulation protocols to improve the performance of professional athletes, namely martial art practitioners, including their accuracy and velocity of reactions. Such positive effects of neuostimulation in athletic performance as demonstrated in this research and similar reports are expected to enhance the athletes' success in professional competitions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ali-Mohammad Kamali
- grid.412571.40000 0000 8819 4698Neuroscience Laboratory, NSL (Brain, Cognition and Behavior), Department of Neuroscience, School of Advanced Medical Sciences and Technologies, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran ,Iranian Neuroscience Society-Fars Chapter, DANA Brain Health Institute, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Mojtaba Ijadi
- grid.413020.40000 0004 0384 8939Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Yasuj University of Medical Sciences, Yasuj, Iran
| | - Behnam Keshtkarhesamabadi
- Iranian Neuroscience Society-Fars Chapter, DANA Brain Health Institute, Shiraz, Iran ,High Performance Brain, Helena Félix Street, No. 7 to 7 D, 1600-121 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Milad Kazemiha
- grid.412571.40000 0000 8819 4698Neuroscience Laboratory, NSL (Brain, Cognition and Behavior), Department of Neuroscience, School of Advanced Medical Sciences and Technologies, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran ,Iranian Neuroscience Society-Fars Chapter, DANA Brain Health Institute, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Reza Mahmoudi
- grid.413020.40000 0004 0384 8939Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Yasuj University of Medical Sciences, Yasuj, Iran
| | - Amrollah Roozbehi
- Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Yasuj University of Medical Sciences, Yasuj, Iran.
| | - Mohammad Nami
- Neuroscience Laboratory, NSL (Brain, Cognition and Behavior), Department of Neuroscience, School of Advanced Medical Sciences and Technologies, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran. .,Iranian Neuroscience Society-Fars Chapter, DANA Brain Health Institute, Shiraz, Iran. .,Instituto de Investigaciones Científicas Y Servicios de Alta Tecnología (INDICASAT AIP), City of Knowledge, Neuroscience Center, Panama City, Panama. .,Harvard Alumni in Healthcare, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA. .,Brain, Cognition, and Behavior Unit, BrainHub Academy, Dubai, United Arab Emirates.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Friehs MA, Schäfer S, Frings C. The (Gami)fictional Ego-Center: Projecting the Location of the Self Into an Avatar. Front Psychol 2022; 13:918688. [PMID: 35874390 PMCID: PMC9301311 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.918688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
A rich body of research suggests that self-associated stimuli are preferentially processed and therefore responses to such stimuli are typically faster and more accurate. In addition, people have an understanding of what they consider their “Self” and where it is located, namely near the head and upper torso—further boosting the processing of self-related stimuli if they are presented near the felt location of the self. We were interested in whether the same mechanism can be found when people transfer their “Self” into a static avatar. We investigated this in two studies with N = 33 and N = 39 young, healthy adults, respectively. Taken together, the results showed that (i) people indeed show enhanced processing for self-avatar-related stimuli and (ii) that self-associations are stronger if the to-be-associated stimuli are closer to the avatar’s upper torso—suggesting some kind of a projected location of the self in the avatar. This implies that attention is not equally distributed across the avatar. Beyond a theoretical level, this also has implications for practical use. For example, digital games opting for a non-traditional user interface where information is displayed on or in the direct vicinity of the character should take this effect into account when choosing which information to present where (i.e., present the most crucial piece of information close to the self-center of the avatar).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maximilian A. Friehs
- UCD School of Psychology, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- Lise Meitner Research Group Cognition and Plasticity, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
- *Correspondence: Maximilian A. Friehs,
| | - Sarah Schäfer
- Department of Cognitive Psychology and Methodology, University of Trier, Trier, Germany
| | - Christian Frings
- Department of Cognitive Psychology and Methodology, University of Trier, Trier, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Meyer J, Fasold F, Schul K, Sonnenschein M, Klatt S. The Defender's Vision-Gaze Behavior of One-on-One Defenders in Basketball. JOURNAL OF SPORT & EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY 2022; 44:127-137. [PMID: 35245894 DOI: 10.1123/jsep.2021-0149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Revised: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
In fast-paced team sports, anticipation is one important element in defense strategies. The primary objective of this study was to examine the recommendation for action and use of defensive gaze strategies by defensive players in basketball. Four national-level expert-basketball coaches were interviewed and a field study with mobile eye-tracking devices was conducted on 16 expert and 16 novice players defending in a one-on-one situation. Differences in relative fixation times between experts and novices were elaborated for the predetermined gaze zones-head, ball, torso, and feet-as given by the expert coaches. This was done for three phases of the movement sequence: receiving, dribbling, and shooting. The results of the interviews with expert coaches indicated that the existing coaching doctrine instructs players to look at the torso of an opponent to avoid being vulnerable to fakes. Surprisingly, our findings with the players showed a discrepancy in the evaluated gaze behavior of the experts and novices. For the receiving and dribbling phase, experts mainly fixated their gaze on the head while novices focused on the ball. For the final shooting phase, both the groups mainly fixated their gaze on the ball. Fixating the gaze on the ball or head makes the player potentially vulnerable to deceptive movements, as video-based research has shown. Expert coaches also indicated that peripheral vision is of importance to defenders, contradicting the existing assumption in the literature that focusing on the task-relevant areas is key for anticipation performance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Meyer
- Institute of Exercise Training and Sport Informatics, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Frowin Fasold
- Institute of Exercise Training and Sport Informatics, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Karsten Schul
- Institute of Exercise Training and Sport Informatics, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Matthias Sonnenschein
- Institute of Exercise Training and Sport Informatics, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Stefanie Klatt
- Institute of Exercise Training and Sport Informatics, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
- Sport and Exercise Science and Sports Medicine Research and Enterprise Group, Welkin Laboratories, University of Brighton, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Hemifield-Specific Rotational Biases during the Observation of Ambiguous Human Silhouettes. Symmetry (Basel) 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/sym13081349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Both static and dynamic ambiguous stimuli representing human bodies that perform unimanual or unipedal movements are usually interpreted as right-limbed rather than left-limbed, suggesting that human observers attend to the right side of others more than the left one. Moreover, such a bias is stronger when static human silhouettes are presented in the RVF (right visual field) than in the LVF (left visual field), which might represent a particular instance of embodiment. On the other hand, hemispheric-specific rotational biases, combined with the well-known bias to perceive forward-facing figures, could represent a confounding factor when accounting for such findings. Therefore, we investigated whether the lateralized presentation of an ambiguous rotating human body would affect its perceived handedness/footedness (implying a role of motor representations), its perceived spinning direction (implying a role of visual representations), or both. To this aim, we required participants to indicate the perceived spinning direction (which also unveils the perceived handedness/footedness) of ambiguous stimuli depicting humans with an arm or a leg outstretched. Results indicated that the lateralized presentation of the stimuli affected both their perceived limb laterality (a larger number of figures being interpreted as right-limbed in the RVF than in the LVF) and their perceived spinning direction (a larger number of figures being interpreted as spinning clockwise in the LVF than in the RVF). However, the hemifield of presentation showed a larger effect size on the perceived spinning direction than on the perceived limb laterality. Therefore, as we already proposed, the implicit representation of others’ handedness seems to be affected more by visual than by motor processes during the perception of ambiguous human silhouettes.
Collapse
|
10
|
Friehs MA, Greene C, Pastötter B. Transcranial direct current stimulation over the left anterior temporal lobe during memory retrieval differentially affects true and false recognition in the DRM task. Eur J Neurosci 2021; 54:4609-4620. [PMID: 34076917 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.15337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Revised: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a form of non-invasive brain stimulation that has been used to modulate human brain activity and cognition. One area which has not yet been extensively explored using tDCS is the generation of false memories. In this study, we combined the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) task with stimulation of the left anterior temporal lobe (ATL) during retrieval. This area has been shown to be involved in semantic processing in general and retrieval of false memories in the DRM paradigm in particular. During stimulation, 0.7 mA were applied via a 9 cm² electrode over the left ATL, with the 35 cm² return electrode placed over the left deltoid. We contrasted the effects of cathodal, anodal, and sham stimulation, which were applied in the recognition phase of the experiment on a sample of 78 volunteers. Results showed impaired recognition of true memories after both anodal and cathodal stimulation in comparison to sham stimulation, suggesting a reduced signal-to-noise ratio. In addition, the results revealed enhanced false recognition of concept lure items during cathodal stimulation compared to anodal stimulation, indicating a polarity-dependent impact of tDCS on false memories in the DRM task. The pathway by which tDCS modulated false recognition remains unclear: stimulation may have changed the activation of irrelevant lures or affected the weighting and monitoring of lure activations. Nevertheless, these results are a first step towards using brain stimulation to decrease false memories. Practical implications of the findings for real-life settings, for example, in the courtroom, need to be addressed in future work.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Ciara Greene
- School of Psychology, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Bernhard Pastötter
- Department of Cognitive Psychology and Methodology, Trier University, Trier, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Polzien A, Güldenpenning I, Weigelt M. A question of (perfect) timing: A preceding head turn increases the head-fake effect in basketball. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0251117. [PMID: 33979374 PMCID: PMC8115800 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0251117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In many kinds of sports, deceptive actions are frequently used to hamper the anticipation of an opponent. The head fake in basketball is often applied to deceive an observer regarding the direction of a pass. To perform a head fake, a basketball player turns the head in one direction, but passes the ball to the opposite direction. Several studies showed that reactions to passes with head fakes are slower and more error-prone than to passes without head fakes (head-fake effect). The aim of a basketball player is to produce a head-fake effect for as large as possible in the opponent. The question if the timing of the deceptive action influences the size of the head-fake effect has not yet been examined systematically. The present study investigated if the head-fake effect depends on the temporal lag between the head turn and the passing movement. To this end, the stimulus onset asynchrony between head turn, and pass was varied between 0 and 800 ms. The results showed the largest effect when the head turn precedes the pass by 300 ms. This result can be explained better by facilitating the processing of passes without head fake than by making it more difficult to process passes with a head fake. This result is discussed regarding practical implications and conclusions about the underlying mechanism of the head–fake effect in basketball are drawn.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Polzien
- Department of Sport & Health, Psychology and Movement Science, Faculty of Science, Paderborn University, Paderborn, NRW, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Iris Güldenpenning
- Department of Sport & Health, Psychology and Movement Science, Faculty of Science, Paderborn University, Paderborn, NRW, Germany
| | - Matthias Weigelt
- Department of Sport & Health, Psychology and Movement Science, Faculty of Science, Paderborn University, Paderborn, NRW, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Machado S, Travassos B, Teixeira DS, Rodrigues F, Cid L, Monteiro D. Could tDCS Be a Potential Performance-Enhancing Tool for Acute Neurocognitive Modulation in eSports? A Perspective Review. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18073678. [PMID: 33916018 PMCID: PMC8037790 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18073678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Revised: 03/27/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Competitive sports involve physical and cognitive skills. In traditional sports, there is a greater dependence on the development and performance of both motor and cognitive skills, unlike electronic sports (eSports), which depend much more on neurocognitive skills for success. However, little is known about neurocognitive functions and effective strategies designed to develop and optimize neurocognitive performance in eSports athletes. One such strategy is transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), characterized as a weak electric current applied on the scalp to induce prolonged changes in cortical excitability. Therefore, our objective is to propose anodal (a)-tDCS as a performance-enhancing tool for neurocognitive functions in eSports. In this manuscript, we discussed the neurocognitive processes that underlie exceptionally skilled performances in eSports and how tDCS could be used for acute modulation of these processes in eSports. Based on the results from tDCS studies in healthy people, professional athletes, and video game players, it seems that tDCS is applied over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) as a potential performance-enhancing tool for neurocognition in eSports.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Machado
- Laboratory of Physical Activity Neuroscience, Physical Activity Sciences Postgraduate Program, Salgado de Oliveira University, Niterói 24456-570, Brazil;
- Department of Sports Science, University of Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal;
- Laboratory of Physical Activity Neuroscience, Neurodiversity Institute, Queimados 26325-020, Brazil
| | - Bruno Travassos
- Department of Sports Science, University of Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal;
- Research Center in Sport, Health and Human Development (CIDESD), 5000-558 Vila Real, Portugal;
- Portugal Football School, Portuguese Football Federation, 1495-433 Cruz Quebrada, Portugal
| | - Diogo S. Teixeira
- Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Lusófona University, 1749-024 Lisbon, Portugal;
- Research Center in Sport, Physical Education, and Exercise and Health (CIDEFES), (CIDEFES), 1749-024 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Filipe Rodrigues
- Sport Science School of Rio Maior, ESDRM-IPSantarém, 2040-413 Rio Maio, Portugal;
- Life Quality Research Center (CIEQV), 2040-413 Rio Maior, Portugal
| | - Luis Cid
- Research Center in Sport, Health and Human Development (CIDESD), 5000-558 Vila Real, Portugal;
- Sport Science School of Rio Maior, ESDRM-IPSantarém, 2040-413 Rio Maio, Portugal;
| | - Diogo Monteiro
- Research Center in Sport, Health and Human Development (CIDESD), 5000-558 Vila Real, Portugal;
- ESECS, Polytechnic of Leiria, 2411-901 Leiria, Portugal
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Merz S, Frings C, Spence C. When irrelevant information helps: Extending the Eriksen-flanker task into a multisensory world. Atten Percept Psychophys 2021; 83:776-789. [PMID: 32514664 PMCID: PMC7884353 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-020-02066-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Charles W. Eriksen dedicated much of his research career to the field of cognitive psychology, investigating human information processing in those situations that required selection between competing stimuli. Together with his wife Barbara, he introduced the flanker task, which became one of the standard experimental tasks used by researchers to investigate the mechanisms underpinning selection. Although Eriksen himself was primarily interested in investigating visual selection, the flanker task was eventually adapted by other researchers to investigate human information processing and selection in a variety of nonvisual and multisensory situations. Here, we discuss the core aspects of the flanker task and interpret the evidence of the flanker task when used in crossmodal and multisensory settings. "Selection" has been a core topic of psychology for nearly 120 years. Nowadays, though, it is clear that we need to look at selection from a multisensory perspective-the flanker task, at least in its crossmodal and multisensory variants, is an important tool with which to investigate selection, attention, and multisensory information processing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Simon Merz
- Department of Psychology, Cognitive Psychology, University of Trier, Universitätsring 15, 54286, Trier, Germany.
| | - Christian Frings
- Department of Psychology, Cognitive Psychology, University of Trier, Universitätsring 15, 54286, Trier, Germany
| | - Charles Spence
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Veldema J, Engelhardt A, Jansen P. Does anodal tDCS improve basketball performance? A randomized controlled trial. Eur J Sport Sci 2021; 22:126-135. [PMID: 33297843 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2020.1862306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Shooting precision as well as dribbling and agility are crucial components of performance in basketball. We examined the effects of anodal tDCS over the dominant primary motor cortex in supporting these basketball specific abilities. Fifty-two sports students were enrolled in a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover trial with two interventions. Twenty minutes of anodal 1 mA tDCS/sham tDCS were applied over the primary motor cortex of the dominant hemisphere. Basketball shooting precision (basketball shooting accuracy test) and basketball specific dribbling and agility (Illinois ball-dribbling test) were tested prior and after each intervention. Basketball shooting precision and basketball specific dribbling and agility improved after real tDCS but not after sham tDCS. ANOVAs show significant intervention*time effects on both the shooting accuracy test (F1,51 = 5.6; P = 0.022) and on the Illinois ball-dribbling test (F1,51 = 4.5; P = 0.038). Anodal 1 mA tDCS over the dominant primary motor cortex is effective in supporting short-term performance in basketball. However, the available data is insufficient for application of this novel method within the framework of conventional sports training.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jitka Veldema
- Faculty of Human Sciences, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Arne Engelhardt
- Faculty of Human Sciences, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Petra Jansen
- Faculty of Human Sciences, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Friehs MA, Klaus J, Singh T, Frings C, Hartwigsen G. Perturbation of the right prefrontal cortex disrupts interference control. Neuroimage 2020; 222:117279. [PMID: 32828926 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2020] [Revised: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 08/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Resolving cognitive interference is central for successful everyday cognition and behavior. The Stroop task is a classical measure of cognitive interference. In this task, participants have to resolve interference on a trial-by-trial basis and performance is also influenced by the trial history, as reflected in sequence effects. Previous neuroimaging studies have associated the left and right prefrontal cortex with successful performance in the Stroop task. Yet, the causal relevance of both regions for interference processing remains largely unclear. We probed the functional relevance of the left and right prefrontal cortex for interference control. In three sessions, 25 healthy participants received online repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) over the left and right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and sham stimulation over the vertex. During each session, participants completed a verbal-response Stroop task. Relative to sham rTMS and rTMS over the left prefrontal cortex, rTMS over the right prefrontal cortex selectively disrupted the Stroop sequence effect (i.e., the congruency sequence effect; CSE). This effect was specific to sequential modulations of interference since rTMS did not affect the Stroop performance in the ongoing trial. Our results demonstrate the functional relevance of the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex for the processing of interference control. This finding points towards process-specific lateralization within the prefrontal cortex. The observed process- and site-specific TMS effect provides new insights into the neurophysiological underpinnings of Stroop task performance and more general, the role of the prefrontal cortex in the processing of interference control.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maximilian A Friehs
- Department of Cognitive Psychology and Methodology, Trier University, Germany.
| | - Jana Klaus
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Utrecht University, the Netherlands
| | - Tarini Singh
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Halle University, Germany
| | - Christian Frings
- Department of Cognitive Psychology and Methodology, Trier University, Germany
| | - Gesa Hartwigsen
- Lise Meitner Research Group Cognition and Plasticity, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Friehs MA, Dechant M, Vedress S, Frings C, Mandryk RL. Effective Gamification of the Stop-Signal Task: Two Controlled Laboratory Experiments. JMIR Serious Games 2020; 8:e17810. [PMID: 32897233 PMCID: PMC7509611 DOI: 10.2196/17810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Revised: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 06/25/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background A lack of ability to inhibit prepotent responses, or more generally a lack of impulse control, is associated with several disorders such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and schizophrenia as well as general damage to the prefrontal cortex. A stop-signal task (SST) is a reliable and established measure of response inhibition. However, using the SST as an objective assessment in diagnostic or research-focused settings places significant stress on participants as the task itself requires concentration and cognitive effort and is not particularly engaging. This can lead to decreased motivation to follow task instructions and poor data quality, which can affect assessment efficacy and might increase drop-out rates. Gamification—the application of game-based elements in nongame settings—has shown to improve engaged attention to a cognitive task, thus increasing participant motivation and data quality. Objective This study aims to design a gamified SST that improves participants’ engagement and validate this gamified SST against a standard SST. Methods We described the design of our gamified SST and reported on 2 separate studies that aim to validate the gamified SST relative to a standard SST. In study 1, a within-subject design was used to compare the performance of the SST and a stop-signal game (SSG). In study 2, we added eye tracking to the procedure to determine if overt attention was affected and aimed to replicate the findings from study 1 in a between-subjects design. Furthermore, in both studies, flow and motivational experiences were measured. Results In contrast, the behavioral performance was comparable between the tasks (P<.87; BF01=2.87), and the experience of flow and intrinsic motivation were rated higher in the SSG group, although this difference was not significant. Conclusions Overall, our findings provide evidence that the gamification of SST is possible and that the SSG is enjoyed more. Thus, when participant engagement is critical, we recommend using the SSG instead of the SST.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Martin Dechant
- Human-Computer-Interaction Lab, Department of Computer Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Sarah Vedress
- Human-Computer-Interaction Lab, Department of Computer Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Christian Frings
- Department of Cognitive Psychology and Methodology, Trier University, Trier, Germany
| | - Regan Lee Mandryk
- Human-Computer-Interaction Lab, Department of Computer Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| |
Collapse
|