Integrating brain, cognition and culture

Exposure to greenspace and bluespace and cognitive functioning in children - A systematic review

BACKGROUND

The field of greenspace and bluespace research in relation to cognitive outcomes is rapidly growing. Several systematic reviews have already been published on this topic but none of them are specific to cognitive outcomes in the entire age range of children. Moreover, only a few of them have examined the effects of bluespace in addition to greenspace. Also, theses reviews are focused either only on observational studies or experimental studies. Our systematic review focuses on cognitive outcomes in relation to greenspace and bluespace in children and adolescents aged 0-18; it captures both observational and experimental studies. Cognitive outcomes are presented according to an evidence-based taxonomy of human cognitive abilities: the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory.

METHODS

We conducted searches in the PubMed and PsychInfo databases, from their inception dates to 17 December 2021. We used three-text terms related to outcome, exposure, and population as well as MeSH terms for outcome and population. Further, the reference lists and existing reviews were searched ("snowball" search) until 21 April 2022 to detect additional studies. For the results reporting, we followed the updated guidelines of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta Analyses (PRISMA). We included observational and experimental studies on greenspace or bluespace exposure in relation to cognitive functioning, published in English, German, or Polish. Two reviewers independently checked study eligibility and extracted data. Two reviewers evaluated the risk of bias according to the Office of Health Assessment and Translation (OHAT) tool. At all stages, discrepancies between the two reviewers were solved via discussion with a third reviewer.

RESULTS

Records identified from PubMed (n = 2030) and PsycINFO (n = 1168) were deduplicated and screened. Twenty one reports were first selected. The "snowball" search revealed 16 additional reports. Altogether, 39 studies (17 experimental and 22 observational) published in 37 reports were qualified. The data extraction showed that the methodology used in the studies was heterogenous and the findings were inconsistent. The majority of the studies investigated attentional functioning, which we subdivided into two categories according to the CHC theory: attentional control and reaction and decision speed (12 studies) and attentional control and processing speed (10 studies). Eleven studies investigated working memory and/or short-term memory that we categorized as CHC working memory capacity. Nine studies investigated intellectual functioning, which we categorized as CHC general ability, fluid reasoning, and comprehension-knowledge. Two studies investigated visual-spatial skills, which we categorized as CHC visual processing and psychomotor speed. One study measured parent-reported attention; two studies examined early childhood/cognitive development; three studies examined decision-making and self-regulation, which can be categorized as several CHC theory abilities.

DISCUSSION

The heterogeneity of the included studies does not permit clear conclusions for our review. In accordance with previous systematic reviews, greenspace and bluespace were not more strongly related to a particular domain of cognitive functioning than other cognitive domains, and no effects of age or type of exposure assessment on the association between nature and cognition were detected. Further research is needed, including state-of-the-art of assessment of cognitive outcomes and diverse exposure assessment methods within both observational and experimental approaches. Expertise will be required in several domains, such as environmental epidemiology, cognitive psychology, and neuropsychology. Systematic review registration number (INPLASY): 202220018.

The multiple-level framework of developmental dyslexia: the long trace from a neurodevelopmental deficit to an impaired cultural technique

Developmental dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by an unexpected impairment in literacy acquisition leading to specific poor academic achievement and possible secondary symptoms. The multi-level framework of developmental dyslexia considers five levels of a causal pathway on which a given genotype is expressed and hierarchically transmitted from one level to the next under the increasing influence of individual learning-relevant traits and environmental factors moderated by cultural conditions. These levels are the neurobiological, the information processing and the skill level (prerequisites and acquisition of literacy skills), the academic achievement level and the level of secondary effects. Various risk factors are present at each level within the assumed causal pathway and can increase the likelihood of exhibiting developmental dyslexia. Transition from one level to the next is neither unidirectional nor inevitable. This fact has direct implications for prevention and intervention which can mitigate transitions from one level to the next. In this paper, various evidence-based theories and findings regarding deficits at different levels are placed in the proposed framework. In addition, the moderating effect of cultural impact at and between information processing and skill levels are further elaborated based on a review of findings regarding influences of different writing systems and orthographies. These differences impose culture-specific demands for literacy-specific cognitive procedures, influencing both literacy acquisition and the manifestation of developmental dyslexia.

The Attention Network Test Database: ADHD and Cross-Cultural Applications

Attention is a central component of cognitive and behavioral processes and plays a key role in basic and higher-level functioning. Posner's model of attention describes three components or networks of attention: the alerting, which involves high intensity states of arousal; the orienting, which involves the selective direction of attention; and the executive control, which involves cognitive functions such as conflict resolution and working memory. The Attention Network Test (ANT) is a computerized testing measure that was developed to measure these three networks of attention. This project describes the ANT, its widely used variants, and the recently developed ANT Database, a repository of data extracted from all studies that have used the ANT as of 2019. To illustrate the potential uses of the database, two meta-analyses conducted using the ANT Database are described. One explores task performance in children with and without attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The other one explores regional differences between studies conducted in China, Europe, and the United States. We are currently in the process of integrating the database into a publicly available web interface. When that work is complete, researchers, clinicians, and the general public will be able to use the database to explore topics of interest related to attention.