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Vanlalveni C, Ralte V, Zohmingliana H, Das S, Anal JMH, Lallianrawna S, Rokhum SL. A review of microbes mediated biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles and their enhanced antimicrobial activities. Heliyon 2024; 10:e32333. [PMID: 38947433 PMCID: PMC11214502 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e32333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Revised: 05/28/2024] [Accepted: 06/02/2024] [Indexed: 07/02/2024] Open
Abstract
In recent decades, biosynthesis of metal and (or) metal oxide nanoparticles using microbes is accepted as one of the most sustainable, cost-effective, robust, and green processes as it does not encompass the usage of largely hazardous chemicals. Accordingly, numerous simple, inexpensive, and environmentally friendly approaches for the biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were reported using microbes avoiding conventional (chemical) methods. This comprehensive review detailed an advance made in recent years in the microbes-mediated biosynthesis of AgNPs and evaluation of their antimicrobial activities covering the literature from 2015-till date. It also aimed at elaborating the possible effect of the different phytochemicals, their concentrations, extraction temperature, extraction solvent, pH, reaction time, reaction temperature, and concentration of precursor on the shape, size, and stability of the synthesized AgNPs. In addition, while trying to understand the antimicrobial activities against targeted pathogenic microbes the probable mechanism of the interaction of produced AgNPs with the cell wall of targeted microbes that led to the cell's reputed and death have also been detailed. Lastly, this review detailed the shape and size-dependent antimicrobial activities of the microbes-mediated AgNPs and their enhanced antimicrobial activities by synergetic interaction with known commercially available antibiotic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chhangte Vanlalveni
- Department of Botany, Mizoram University, Tanhril, Aizawl, Mizoram 796001, India
| | - Vanlalhruaii Ralte
- Department of Botany, Pachhunga University College, Aizawl, 796001, Mizoram, India
| | - Hlawncheu Zohmingliana
- Department of Chemistry, National Institute of Technology Silchar, Silchar, 788010, India
| | - Shikhasmita Das
- Department of Chemistry, National Institute of Technology Silchar, Silchar, 788010, India
| | - Jasha Momo H. Anal
- Natural Products and Medicinal Chemistry Division, CSIR - Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Jammu, 180001, India
| | - Samuel Lallianrawna
- Department of Chemistry, Govt. Zirtiri Residential Science College, Aizawl, 796001, Mizoram, India
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Palani N, Vijayakumar P, Monisha P, Ayyadurai S, Rajadesingu S. Electrospun nanofibers synthesized from polymers incorporated with bioactive compounds for wound healing. J Nanobiotechnology 2024; 22:211. [PMID: 38678271 PMCID: PMC11056076 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-024-02491-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024] Open
Abstract
The development of innovative wound dressing materials is crucial for effective wound care. It's an active area of research driven by a better understanding of chronic wound pathogenesis. Addressing wound care properly is a clinical challenge, but there is a growing demand for advancements in this field. The synergy of medicinal plants and nanotechnology offers a promising approach to expedite the healing process for both acute and chronic wounds by facilitating the appropriate progression through various healing phases. Metal nanoparticles play an increasingly pivotal role in promoting efficient wound healing and preventing secondary bacterial infections. Their small size and high surface area facilitate enhanced biological interaction and penetration at the wound site. Specifically designed for topical drug delivery, these nanoparticles enable the sustained release of therapeutic molecules, such as growth factors and antibiotics. This targeted approach ensures optimal cell-to-cell interactions, proliferation, and vascularization, fostering effective and controlled wound healing. Nanoscale scaffolds have significant attention due to their attractive properties, including delivery capacity, high porosity and high surface area. They mimic the Extracellular matrix (ECM) and hence biocompatible. In response to the alarming rise of antibiotic-resistant, biohybrid nanofibrous wound dressings are gradually replacing conventional antibiotic delivery systems. This emerging class of wound dressings comprises biopolymeric nanofibers with inherent antibacterial properties, nature-derived compounds, and biofunctional agents. Nanotechnology, diminutive nanomaterials, nanoscaffolds, nanofibers, and biomaterials are harnessed for targeted drug delivery aimed at wound healing. This review article discusses the effects of nanofibrous scaffolds loaded with nanoparticles on wound healing, including biological (in vivo and in vitro) and mechanical outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naveen Palani
- Department of Physics and Nanotechnology, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chengalpattu District, Kattankulathur, 603 203, Tamil Nadu, India
- Centre for Research in Environment, Sustainability Advocacy and Climate CHange (REACH), Directorate of Research, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chengalpattu District, Kattankulathur, 603 203, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Pradeshwaran Vijayakumar
- Department of Chemistry, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chengalpattu District, Kattankulathur, 603 203, Tamil Nadu, India
- Centre for Research in Environment, Sustainability Advocacy and Climate CHange (REACH), Directorate of Research, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chengalpattu District, Kattankulathur, 603 203, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - P Monisha
- PG & Research Department of Physics, Sri Sarada College for Women, Salem, 636 016, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Saravanakumar Ayyadurai
- Centre for Research in Environment, Sustainability Advocacy and Climate CHange (REACH), Directorate of Research, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chengalpattu District, Kattankulathur, 603 203, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Suriyaprakash Rajadesingu
- Centre for Research in Environment, Sustainability Advocacy and Climate CHange (REACH), Directorate of Research, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Chengalpattu District, Kattankulathur, 603 203, Tamil Nadu, India.
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Bhandari Y, Varma S, Sawant A, Beemagani S, Jaiswal N, Chaudhari BP, Vamkudoth KR. Biosynthesis of gold nanoparticles by Penicillium rubens and catalytic detoxification of ochratoxin A and organic dye pollutants. Int Microbiol 2023; 26:765-780. [PMID: 36853416 DOI: 10.1007/s10123-023-00341-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2022] [Revised: 01/28/2023] [Accepted: 02/12/2023] [Indexed: 03/01/2023]
Abstract
The environmental pollution caused by chemical dyes is a growing concern nowadays. Limitations of traditional methods opened the route for nanotechnology; owing to the versatile properties of nanomaterials, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) became a potential strategy for different applications. In the present study, biosynthesis of gold nanoparticles (BioAuNPs) was carried out by reacting chloroauric acid (HAuCl4) with cell-free filtrate of Penicillium rubens sp. nov. NCIM 1937. The AuNPs were then characterized by UV-visible spectroscopy, HR-TEM, FTIR, and DLS analysis to further examine their efficacious biosynthesis and morphological properties including size, shape, and stability. The biogenic AuNPs are polydisperse in nature, with a mean size of 14.92 ± 5 nm. These AuNPs exhibited promising antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli NCIM-2065, Bacillus subtilis NCIM-2010, and Penicillium verrucosum MTCC 4935. In vitro quantitative HPLC results revealed that BioAuNPs significantly inhibited the biosynthesis of ochratoxin A (OTA). Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) are intriguing for power generation and wastewater treatment since they can directly transform chemical energy stored in organic matter to electricity by extracellular electron transfer (EET) via membrane proteins. AuNPs also showed excellent potential for dye degradation of organic pollutants, viz., methylene blue (MB), phenol red (PR), bromothymol blue (BTB), Congo red (CR), and 4-nitrophenol (4-NP). All dye removal efficiencies were estimated and fitted to pseudo-first-order processes using kinetic rate constants (Ka).The present study reveals a simple, original, and eco-friendly method for the synthesis of multifunctional biogenic AuNPs that could be effective in OTA detoxification in food products and organic pollutant removal during wastewater treatment for a sustainable environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yogesh Bhandari
- Biochemical Sciences Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Pune, 411008, Maharashtra, India
| | - Sanjana Varma
- Biochemical Sciences Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Pune, 411008, Maharashtra, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India
| | - Amol Sawant
- Biochemical Sciences Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Pune, 411008, Maharashtra, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India
| | - Sreelatha Beemagani
- Department of Microbiology, Chaitanya Deemed to Be University, Telangana, India
| | - Neha Jaiswal
- Biochemical Sciences Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Pune, 411008, Maharashtra, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India
| | - Bhushan P Chaudhari
- Biochemical Sciences Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Pune, 411008, Maharashtra, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India
| | - Koteswara Rao Vamkudoth
- Biochemical Sciences Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Pune, 411008, Maharashtra, India.
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India.
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Raja SA, Andleeb S, Javed A, Sabahat S, Parvaiz F, Mureed H, Ahmad S, Naz F. Green synthesised AuNps using Ajuga Bracteosa extract and AuNps-Free supernatant exhibited equivalent antibacterial and anticancerous efficacies. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0282485. [PMID: 37549158 PMCID: PMC10406282 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0282485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 08/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The current study is designed to synthesize gold nanoparticles using Ajuga bracteosa extract, which is a highly known medicinal herb found in the northern Himalayas. The synthesized gold nanoparticles were initially characterized by UV-Vis spectrophotometer, SEM, FTIR, pXRD, and, GC-MS. Antibacterial efficacy of A. bracteosa extract, AuNps, and AuNps-free supernatant activity was checked against highly pathogenic clinical isolates of Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa via agar well diffusion method, assuming that supernatant might have active compounds. The Nps-free supernatant showed the maximum antibacterial activity against E. coli (20.8±0.3 mm), Staphylococcus aureus (16.5±0.5), and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (13±0.6). While green synthesized AuNps showed effective antibacterial activity (Escherichia coli (16.4±0.3mm), Staphylococcus aureus (15.05±0.5mm), and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (11.07±0.6mm)) which was high compared to A. bracteosa extract. Anticancer activity was assessed by MTT assay on U87 and HEK293 cell lines. Aj-AuNps have an antigrowth effect on both the cell lines however Aj-AuNps-free supernatant which was also evaluated along with the Aj-AuNps, showed high toxicity toward HEK293 cell line compared to U87. Further, the GC-MS analysis of supernatant showed the presence of resultant toxic compounds after the reduction of gold salt, which include Trichloromethane, Propanoic acid, 2-methyl-, methyl ester, Methyl isovalerate, Pentanoic acid, 2-hydroxy-4-methyl-, Benzene-propanoic acid, and alpha-hydroxy. Based on the observation small molecular weight ligands of Ajuga bracteosa were analyzed in-silico for their binding efficacy towards selected membrane proteins of our target pathogens. RMSD is also calculated for the best docked protein ligand pose. The results revealed that among all listed ligands, Ergosterol and Decacetylajugrin IV have high virtuous binding affinities towards the membrane proteins of targeted pathogens. The current findings revealed that the Aj-AuNps are good antibacterial as well as anticancerous agents while the Nps-free supernatant is also exceedingly effective against resistant pathogens and cancer cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sadaf Azad Raja
- Department of Bioscience, COMSATS University, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Saiqa Andleeb
- Microbial Biotechnology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, The University of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, King Abdullah Campus, Muzaffarabad, Pakistan
| | - Aneela Javed
- Department of Healthcare Biotechnology, Atta-ur-Rahman School of Applied Biosciences (ASAB), National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Sana Sabahat
- Department of Bioscience, COMSATS University, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Fahed Parvaiz
- Department of Bioscience, COMSATS University, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Hafsah Mureed
- Department of Bioscience, COMSATS University, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Sohaib Ahmad
- Department of Bioscience, COMSATS University, Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Falak Naz
- Department of Bioscience, COMSATS University, Islamabad, Pakistan
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Roszczenko P, Szewczyk OK, Czarnomysy R, Bielawski K, Bielawska A. Biosynthesized Gold, Silver, Palladium, Platinum, Copper, and Other Transition Metal Nanoparticles. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:2286. [PMID: 36365105 PMCID: PMC9692384 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14112286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Revised: 10/18/2022] [Accepted: 10/23/2022] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Nanomedicine is a potential provider of novel therapeutic and diagnostic routes of treatment. Considering the development of multidrug resistance in pathogenic bacteria and the commonness of cancer, novel approaches are being sought for the safe and efficient synthesis of new nanoparticles, which have multifaceted applications in medicine. Unfortunately, the chemical synthesis of nanoparticles raises justified environmental concerns. A significant problem in their widespread use is also the toxicity of compounds that maintain nanoparticle stability, which significantly limits their clinical use. An opportunity for their more extensive application is the utilization of plants, fungi, and bacteria for nanoparticle biosynthesis. Extracts from natural sources can reduce metal ions in nanoparticles and stabilize them with non-toxic extract components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piotr Roszczenko
- Department of Biotechnology, Medical University of Bialystok, Kilinskiego 1, 15-089 Bialystok, Poland
| | - Olga Klaudia Szewczyk
- Department of Synthesis and Technology of Drugs, Medical University of Bialystok, Kilinskiego 1, 15-089 Bialystok, Poland
| | - Robert Czarnomysy
- Department of Synthesis and Technology of Drugs, Medical University of Bialystok, Kilinskiego 1, 15-089 Bialystok, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Bielawski
- Department of Synthesis and Technology of Drugs, Medical University of Bialystok, Kilinskiego 1, 15-089 Bialystok, Poland
| | - Anna Bielawska
- Department of Biotechnology, Medical University of Bialystok, Kilinskiego 1, 15-089 Bialystok, Poland
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Sahoo A, Satapathy KB, Sahoo SK, Panigrahi GK. Microbased biorefinery for gold nanoparticle production: recent advancements, applications and future aspects. Prep Biochem Biotechnol 2022:1-12. [PMID: 36137172 DOI: 10.1080/10826068.2022.2122065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Multifaceted utility of nanomaterials is indispensable to meet the environmental challenges across the globe. Nanomaterials substantially contribute in delineating the rapidly advancing field of nanotechnology. Recently, primary emphasis has been laid down on augmenting the biological methodologies for the synthesis of nanomaterials. In this aspect, green nanotechnology has revolutionized the entire process of nanosynthesis. Essentially biofabrication of nanoparticles have long-range applications, primarily in the field of medical applications such as drug delivery, cancer diagnostics and genetic engineering processes. Biocompatible and stable nanoparticles synthesized from biological source can be an effective approach against the chemically synthesized owing to their non-expensive and eco-friendly attributes. Biological systems including bacteria, yeasts, fungi and plants have already been exploited in the field of nanotechnology. Use of fungi seems to be a very effective and economical approach for the synthesis of gold nanoparticles. Gold nanoparticles possess anti-oxidation activity, are highly stable and biocompatible in nature. Fungi-mediated nanoparticle biosynthesis is more advantageous as compared to bacterial synthesis. Fungi secrete large amounts of enzymes, whereas the enzyme secretion of yeasts is weak. Here, we have reported the recent advancements and future implications in the field of gold nanoparticle production and applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annapurna Sahoo
- School of Applied Sciences, Centurion University of Technology and Management, Bhubaneswar, India
| | - Kunja Bihari Satapathy
- School of Applied Sciences, Centurion University of Technology and Management, Bhubaneswar, India
| | - Shraban Kumar Sahoo
- School of Applied Sciences, Centurion University of Technology and Management, Bhubaneswar, India
| | - Gagan Kumar Panigrahi
- School of Applied Sciences, Centurion University of Technology and Management, Bhubaneswar, India
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Thiurunavukkarau R, Shanmugam S, Subramanian K, Pandi P, Muralitharan G, Arokiarajan M, Kasinathan K, Sivaraj A, Kalyanasundaram R, AlOmar SY, Shanmugam V. Silver nanoparticles synthesized from the seaweed Sargassum polycystum and screening for their biological potential. Sci Rep 2022; 12:14757. [PMID: 36042243 PMCID: PMC9427740 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-18379-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
World-wide antimicrobial resistant is biggest threat in global health. It requires the urgent need of multisectoral action for the scientific community to achieve the sustainable development Goals. Due to their antimicrobial properties, silver nanoparticles are potential activates to pathogens, which explains their potential for multiple applications in various fields. In the present studies, we evaluate the antimicrobial properties of a Sargassum polycystum algal extract, an unrivaled green synthetic method for producing -defined shaped seaweed silver nanoparticles. To confirm their structure and size, some characterization techniques are used, such as Absorption spectrophotometer (UV-VIS), Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Scanning electron Microscope (SEM), Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and X-Ray diffraction (XRD). Evaluate the antibacterial and anti-mycobacterial activity using silver nanoparticles. The toxicity study of this silver nanoparticle has been done with the help of zebrafish larva. The biological nanoparticle having good antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Micrococcus luteus, Pseudomonas fluorescens and Candida albicans and also it shows potent activity against MTB H37Rv, SHRE sensitive MTB Rifampicin resistant MTB around 98%. Seaweed nanoparticles had lower toxicity for the survival of the fish larvae. In comparison, other dosages will arrest the cell cycle and leads to death. The present finding revealed that these seaweeds nanoparticles have potential anti-mycobacterial activity against pathogens at low concentrations. This makes them a potent source of antibacterial and anti-TB agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajasekar Thiurunavukkarau
- Centre for Drug Discovery and Development, Col. Dr. Jeppiaar Research Park, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology Jeppiaar Nagar, Rajiv Gandhi Road, Chennai, 600 119, India.
| | - Sabarika Shanmugam
- Departmentof Microbiology, Centre of Excellence in Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, 620 024, Tami Nadu, India
| | - Kumaran Subramanian
- Centre for Drug Discovery and Development, Col. Dr. Jeppiaar Research Park, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology Jeppiaar Nagar, Rajiv Gandhi Road, Chennai, 600 119, India.
| | - Priyadarshini Pandi
- Department of Biotechnology, Mohamed Sathak College of Arts and Science, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Gangatharan Muralitharan
- Departmentof Microbiology, Centre of Excellence in Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, 620 024, Tami Nadu, India
| | - Maryshamya Arokiarajan
- Centre for Drug Discovery and Development, Col. Dr. Jeppiaar Research Park, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology Jeppiaar Nagar, Rajiv Gandhi Road, Chennai, 600 119, India
| | - Karthika Kasinathan
- Departmentof Microbiology, Centre of Excellence in Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, 620 024, Tami Nadu, India
| | - Anbarasu Sivaraj
- Centre for Drug Discovery and Development, Col. Dr. Jeppiaar Research Park, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology Jeppiaar Nagar, Rajiv Gandhi Road, Chennai, 600 119, India
| | - Revathy Kalyanasundaram
- Centre for Drug Discovery and Development, Col. Dr. Jeppiaar Research Park, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology Jeppiaar Nagar, Rajiv Gandhi Road, Chennai, 600 119, India
| | - Suliman Yousef AlOmar
- Department of Zoology, College of Science, Kind Saud University, Riyadh, 11451, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
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Gold nanorods decorated polycaprolactone/cellulose acetate hybrid scaffold for PC12 cells proliferation. Int J Biol Macromol 2022; 206:511-520. [PMID: 35240215 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.02.156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Revised: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 02/25/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic and natural polymers have recently received considerable attention due to the exclusive potential for supporting the regenerative cellular processes in peripheral nerve injuries (PNIs). Gold nanorods (GNRs) decorated polycaprolactone (PCL)/cellulose acetate (CA) nanocomposite (PCL/CA/GNR) were fabricated via electrospinning to improve PC12 cells attachment and growth or scaffold cues. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) corroborated the GNR distribution (23 ± 2 nm length and 3/1 Aspect ratio) and suitable average dimension of 800 nm for the fibers; also, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) represented block-free and smooth fibers without perturbation. Because of gold nanorods incorporation, electrical conductivity of PCL/CA/GNR increased ~21%. Water contact angle data emphasized PCL/CA/GNR surface is more wettable that PCL/CA (<90° at 62 s). Real-time PCR technique (RT-PCR) demonstrated overexpression of β-tubulin and microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP2) on PCL/CA/GNR compared to PCL/CA composite. Additionally, evaluated of the maturation and neurogenic differentiation of PC12 cells emphasized overexpression of nestin and β-tubulin by Immunocytochemistry staining onto PCL/CA/GNR in comparison to PCL/CA composite. Notably, these recently developed hybrid scaffolds could be considered for peripheral nerve injury (PNI) regeneration.
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