Allergic and other adverse reactions to drugs used in anesthesia and surgery

The entactogen 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA; ecstasy) as a treatment aid in psychotherapy and its safety concerns

The phenylethylamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, 'ecstasy'), is the prototypical example of an entactogen. Its original placement in highly restrictive drug usage categories in the US and UK, led to an inevitable restriction on MDMA neuroscience research and treatment. The dominant pharmacological effects of MDMA are its properties of release and inhibition of reuptake of amine neurotransmitter transporters for dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. MDMA is an agonist of a wide range of receptors; its mood-altering effects are mediated via 5-HT2A receptors; this receptor may also mediate its effects on body temperature, analgesia, and anxiolytic properties. The mechanisms underlying MDMA's entactogenic properties of sociability and interpersonal closeness are not known but release and involvement of oxytocin, a peptide thought by some to be involved in social bonding, has been suggested. Adverse effects of MDMA are mostly transient; acute multiorgan adverse effects occurring during raves or crowded dance gatherings include dehydration, hyperthermia, seizures, rhabdomyolysis, disseminated intravascular coagulation, and acute renal failure. Deaths following MDMA taken by itself are rare compared to fatalities following coadministration with other drugs. A recent FDA-approved phase 3 clinical trial of MDMA for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) led to the conclusion that MDMA-assisted therapy represents a potential breakthrough treatment meriting expedited clinical evaluation. Despite the ongoing deliberations by the FDA and EMA for approval of MDMA treatment of PTSD, the Australian Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) recently announced that after an evaluation of the therapeutic value, benefits, and risks of MDMA, it will permit its prescribing for the treatment of PTSD. Further examples of regulatory relaxation toward MDMA-assisted psychotherapy are underway. These include the FDA's recently approved clinical trial to assess MDMA's efficacy in the treatment of "asociality" in patients with schizophrenia and an open trial of MDMA treatment for alcohol-use disorder which showed decreased alcohol consumption. There are also ongoing studies on the little understood startle response, anxiety associated with life-threatening illness, and social anxiety in autistic adults.