Voluntary regionalization and associated trends in perinatal care: the Nova Scotia Reproductive Care Program

Access to risk-appropriate hospital care and disparities in neonatal outcomes in racial/ethnic groups and rural-urban populations

Variations in infant and neonatal mortality continue to persist in the United States and in other countries based on both socio-demographic characteristics, such as race and ethnicity, and geographic location. One potential driver of these differences is variations in access to risk-appropriate delivery care. The purpose of this article is to present the importance of delivery hospitals on neonatal outcomes, discuss variation in access to these hospitals for high-risk infants and their mothers, and to provide insight into drivers for differences in access to high-quality perinatal care using the available literature. This review also illustrates the lack of information on a number of topics that are crucial to the development of evidence-based interventions to improve access to appropriate delivery hospital services and thus optimize the outcomes of high-risk mothers and their newborns.

Towards a better understanding of risk selection in maternal and newborn care: A systematic scoping review

Globally, millions of women and their children suffer due to preventable morbidity and mortality, associated with both underuse and overuse of maternal and newborn care. An effective system of risk selection that differentiates between what care should be provided and who should provide it is a global necessity to ensure women and children receive appropriate care, at the right place and the right time. Poor conceptualization of risk selection impedes evaluation and comparison of models of risk selection across various settings, which is necessary to improve maternal and newborn care. We conducted a scoping review to enhance the understanding of risk selection in maternal and newborn care. We included 210 papers, published over the past four decades, originating from 24 countries. Using inductive thematic analysis, we identified three main dimensions of risk selection: (1) risk selection as an organisational measure to optimally align women's and children's needs and resources, (2) risk selection as a practice to detect and assess risk and to make decisions about the delivery of care, and (3) risk selection as a tool to ensure safe care. We found that these three dimensions have three themes in common: risk selection (1) is viewed as both requiring and providing regulation, (2) has a provider centred focus and (3) aims to avoid underuse of care. Due to the methodological challenges of contextual diversity, the concept of risk selection needs clear indicators that capture the complexity of care to make cross-setting evaluation and comparison of risk selection possible. Moreover, a comprehensive understanding of risk selection needs to consider access disparity, women's needs, and unnecessary medicalization.

The impact of level of neonatal care provision on outcomes for preterm babies born between 27 and 31 weeks of gestation, or with a birth weight between 1000 and 1500 g: a review of the literature

OBJECTIVE

There is evidence that birth and care in a maternity service associated with a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) is associated with improved survival in preterm babies born at <27 weeks of gestation. We conducted a systematic review to address whether similar gains manifested in babies born between 27+0 and 31+6 weeks (hereafter 27 and 31 weeks) of gestation, or in those with a birth weight between 1000 and 1500 g.

METHODS

We searched Embase, Medline and CINAHL databases for studies comparing outcomes for babies born between 27 and 31 weeks or between 1000 and 1500 g birth weight, based on designation of the neonatal unit where the baby was born or subsequently cared for (NICU vs non-NICU setting). A modified QUIPS (QUality In Prognostic Studies) tool was used to assess quality.

RESULTS

Nine studies compared outcomes for babies born between 27 and 31 weeks of gestation and 11 studies compared outcomes for babies born between 1000 and 1500 g birth weight. Heterogeneity in comparator groups, birth locations, gestational age ranges, timescale for mortality reporting, and description of morbidities facilitated a narrative review as opposed to a meta-analysis.

CONCLUSION

Due to paucity of evidence, significant heterogeneity and potential for bias, we were not able to answer our question-does place of birth or care affect outcomes for babies born between 27 and 31 weeks? This supports the need for large-scale research to investigate place of birth and care for babies born in this gestational age range.

Perinatal legislative policies and health outcomes

Perinatal epidemiology examines the variation and determinants of pregnancy outcomes from a maternal and neonatal perspective. However, improving public and population health also requires the translation of this evidence base into substantive public policies. Assessing the impact of such public policies requires sufficient data to include potential confounding factors in the analysis, such as coexisting medical conditions and socioeconomic status, and appropriate statistical and epidemiological techniques. This review will explore policies addressing three areas of perinatal medicine-elective deliveries prior to 39 weeks' gestation; perinatal regionalization; and mandatory paid maternity leave policies-to illustrate the challenges when assessing the impact of specific policies at the patient and population level. Data support the use of these policies to improve perinatal health, but with weaker and less certain effect sizes when compared to the initial patient-level studies. Improved data collection and epidemiological techniques will allow for improved assessment of these policies and the identification of potential areas of improvement when translating patient-level studies into public policies.

Does facility based newborn care improve neonatal outcomes? A review of evidence

CONTEXT

Facility based newborn care is gaining importance as an intervention aiming at reduction of neonatal mortality.

OBJECTIVE

To assess different factors that affect effectiveness of facility based newborn care on neonatal outcomes.

EVIDENCE ACQUISITION

Electronic search using key search engines along with search of grey literature manually. Observational and interventional studies published between 1966-Aug 2010 in English having a change in neonatal mortality as an outcome measure were considered.

RESULTS

A total of 40 articles were fully reviewed for generating synthesized evidence. All were observational studies. The exposure variables that affected neonatal outcomes were grouped into three categories- regionalization of perinatal care (17 articles), strengthening of lower level neonatal facilities (12), and other miscellaneous factors (11). Regionalization played a key role in advancing newborn care practices. It increased in-utero transfer of high risk newborns and improved survival outcomes especially for very low birth weight neonates at level III facilities. It led to reduction in neonatal mortality owing primarily to enhanced survival of low birth weight infants. Strengthening of lower level units contributed significantly in reducing neonatal mortality. High patient volume (>2,000 deliveries/year), inborn status, availability of referral system and inter-facility transfers, and adequate nursing care staff in neonatal units also demonstrated protective effect in averting neonatal deaths.

CONCLUSIONS

Countries investing in facility based newborn care should give impetus to establishing regionalized systems of perinatal care. Strengthening of lower level units with high case loads, can yield optimal reduction in NMR.

Cultures of risk and their influence on birth in rural British Columbia

BACKGROUND

A significant number of Canadian rural communities offer local maternity services in the absence of caesarean section back-up to parturient residents. These communities are witnessing a high outflow of women leaving to give birth in larger centres to ensure immediate access to the procedure. A minority of women choose to stay in their home communities to give birth in the absence of such access. In this instance, decision-making criteria and conceptions of risk between physicians and parturient women may not align due to the privileging of different risk factors.

METHODS

In-depth qualitative interviews and focus groups with 27 care providers and 43 women from 3 rural communities in B.C.

RESULTS

When birth was planned locally, physicians expressed an awareness and acceptance of the clinical risk incurred. Likewise, when birth was planned outside the local community, most parturient women expressed an awareness and acceptance of the social risk incurred due to leaving the community.

CONCLUSIONS

The tensions created by these contrasting approaches relate to underlying values and beliefs. As such, an awareness can address the impasse and work to provide a resolution to the competing prioritizations of risk.

The geography of belonging: the experience of birthing at home for First Nations women

The number of rural hospitals offering maternity care in British Columbia has significantly declined since 2000, mirroring trends of closures and service reductions across Canada. The impact on Aboriginal women is significant, contributing to negative maternal and newborn health and social outcomes. The present qualitative case study explored the importance of local birth for Aboriginal women from a remote BC community after the closure of local maternity services. Data collection consisted of 12 interviews and 55 completed surveys. The average participant age was 32 years old at the time of the study. From the perspective of losing local services, participants expressed the importance of local birth in reinforcing the attributes that contributed to their identities, including the importance of community and kinship ties and the strength of ties to their traditional territory.

Regional disparities in infant mortality in Canada: a reversal of egalitarian trends

BACKGROUND

Although national health insurance plans and social programs introduced in the 1960s led to reductions in regional disparities in infant mortality in Canada, it is unclear if such patterns prevailed in the 1990s when the health care and related systems were under fiscal duress. This study examined regional patterns of change in infant mortality in Canada in recent decades.

METHODS

We analysed regional changes in crude infant mortality rates and in infant mortality rates among live births with a birth weight >or= 500 g and >or= 1,000 g in Canada from 1945 to 2002. Associations between baseline infant mortality rates in the provinces and territories (e.g., in 1985-89) and the change observed in infant mortality rates over the subsequent period (e.g., between 1985-89 and 1995-99) were assessed using Spearman's rank correlation coefficient. Trends in regional disparities were also assessed by calculating period-specific rate ratios between provinces/territories with the highest versus the lowest infant mortality.

RESULTS

Provincial/territorial infant mortality rates in 1945-49 were not correlated with changes in infant mortality over the next 10 years (rho = 0.01, P = 0.99). However, there was a strong negative correlation between infant mortality rates in 1965-69 and the subsequent decline in infant mortality (rho = - 0.85, P = 0.002). Provinces/territories with higher infant mortality rates in 1965-69 (Northwest Territories 64.7 vs British Columbia 20.7 per 1,000 live births) experienced relatively larger reductions in infant mortality between 1965-69 and 1975-79 (53.7% decline in the Northwest Territories vs a 36.6% decline in British Columbia). This pattern was reversed in the more recent decades. Provinces/territories with higher infant mortality rates >or= 500 g in 1985-89 experience relatively smaller reductions in infant mortality between 1985-89 and 2000-02 (rho = 0.82, P = 0.004). The infant mortality >or= 500 g rate ratio (contrasting the province/territory with the highest versus lowest infant mortality) was 3.2 in 1965-69, 2.4 in 1975-79, 2.2 in 1985-89, 3.1 in 1995-99 and 4.1 in 2000-02.

CONCLUSION

Fiscal constraints in the 1990s led to a reversal of provincial/territorial patterns of change in infant mortality in Canada and to an increase in regional health disparities.

[Qualitative evaluation of the enforcement of the perinatal decree--strengthening mechanisms for over-medicalisation]

In France, the policy on decentralisation and the organisation of prenatal care is governed and mandated by a decree issued in 1998 whose objective is to improve prevention of pre-maturity and prenatal risks. Within this context, 49 maternal and child health professionals were interviewed by using a qualitative questionnaire to evaluate the implementation and enforcement of the decree specifically in the region of Lyon. This report presents an analysis of the mechanisms and psychosocial issues of the over-medicalisation of birth. This over-medicalisation stems from the inseparable interactions between the ranking of skills within a firm hierarchy - linked in and of itself to the hierarchical status of health facilities - and the progression of attributing the birthing process as one with is more disease-based, surgically-based and judicially-based.

Emergency Air Transport of Obstetric Patients

OBJECTIVE

To review the indications and outcomes of pregnant women requiring emergency air transfer to the Women's Hospital, IWK Health Centre, Halifax, Nova Scotia.

METHODS

A two-year (2003 and 2004) review of all antenatal and intrapartum air transfers to the Women's Hospital, IWK Health Centre, Halifax, via the Nova Scotia Department of Health Emergency Health Services (EHS) LifeFlight Program. Charts were reviewed for indications for maternal transfer and perinatal outcomes.

RESULTS

There were 121 maternal air transfers, representing 1.3% of all deliveries at the Women's Hospital. The primary reasons for transfer were threatened preterm labour (PTL) (41%); preterm premature rupture of the membranes (PPROM) (21%); hypertensive disease/hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelets (HELLP) (16.5%); antepartum hemorrhage (13%); and others (8.5%). Of the women transferred, 63% delivered at the Women's Hospital, and 37% returned for delivery to their home hospital. Women transferred for threatened PTL were significantly less likely than those transferred for all other reasons to need delivery at the Women's Hospital (RR 0.44 [0.30-0.65], P < 0.0001).

CONCLUSION

In almost two thirds of cases, the indications for emergency air transport of pregnant women are threatened PTL or PPROM. The application of fetal fibronectin testing in cases of suspected PTL has the potential to reduce the need for maternal air transfer.

Perinatal care regionalization and acceptability by professionals in France

BACKGROUND

For twenty years, most of industrial countries developed recommendations on regionalization of perinatal care. Perinatal regionalization is particularly aimed at improving morbidity and mortality outcomes of low birth weight newborns by transferring pregnant women to the maternity units having a medical or neonatal environment suited to the risks incurred by mothers or babies. Perinatal regionalization cannot be effective without being well accepted by the majority of professionals. The objectives of this study were then to identify professionals'expectations and objections to perinatal regionalisation and to compare them from a professional group to another one.

METHODS

Professionals of 3 French perinatal networks were under consideration: the Rhône, the Auvergne and the Gard-Lozère networks. The study included two stages: 1) a psychosociological qualitative study, based on professionals'interviews, aimed at identifying main concerns of professionals and developing a questionnaire; then 2) an epidemiological quantitative study, using this questionnaire within French networks. In the questionnaire, 8 dimensions explored the professionals'views: constraints related to regulation aspects and to the setting up of maternity units care levels, risk of loss of professionals' competence and prestige, consequences on medical practices, on inter-professional relationship, on work organization and financial aspects, and related to the new role of 'private practice'professionals, legal consequences.

RESULTS

The response rate of the epidemiological study was 80%. The results permitted to construct 8 dimension scores describing the reasons of poor acceptability of regionalization. After taking into account the age, the sex, the network and the juridical status of the institution, the study revealed a significant poorer acceptability of regionalization by most of medical specialty groups (anesthetists, obstetricians, midwives and "private practice" professionals) compared with neonatologists, or by "private" professionals (professionals working in private clinics and "private practice" professionals) compared with professionals working in university or community hospitals. The study described also network setting up conditions related to its functioning.

CONCLUSION

By identifying clearly professionals 'objections and expectations, this study should facilitate improvement in the organization of studied perinatal networks.

Is Local Maternity Care an Optional Service in Rural Communities?

There has been a precipitous decline in the number of rural communities across Canada providing local maternity care. The evidence suggests that the outcome for newborns may be worse as a result. There is also an emerging understanding of the significant physiological and psychosocial consequences for rural parturient women. Because they cannot plan for birth with any certainty, many of them experience labour and delivery in referral communities as a crisis event fraught with anxiety. The literature suggests that, within a regionalized perinatal system, small maternity services can offer safe care provided that an efficient mechanism for intrapartum transfer has been established. This commentary provides recommendations for sustainable maternity care that will meet the needs of women, their families, and maternity caregivers in rural communities. The recommendations stem from a rural maternity care program of research, consultations with communities, and review of relevant epidemiologic and policy literature.

The influence of hospital closures in Nova Scotia on perinatal outcomes

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effect of hospital closures on critical obstetrical interventions and perinatal outcomes in rural communities in Nova Scotia, Canada.

METHODS

A population-based cohort study was carried out for the years 1988 to 2002, using data extracted from the Nova Scotia Atlee Perinatal Database. Regions of maternal residence were defined geographically and administratively as Eastern, Northern,Western, and Central. The time periods of 1988 to 1993 and 1996 to 2002 were chosen based on the timing of hospital closures. Changes in rates of several perinatal outcomes were examined by region in relation to the extent of hospital closures experienced by that region.

RESULTS

The majority of hospital closures occurred in 1994 to 1995 with the establishment of new health regions, and affected the Western region most profoundly. In comparison with the Central region (relative risk [RR], 0.56; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.53-0.59), the temporal reduction in the rate of forceps-assisted vaginal delivery was smaller in the Western region (RR, 0.83; 95% CI, 0.76-0.91; P < .001), but greater in the Northern (RR, 0.36; 95% CI, 0.32-0.41; P < .001) and Eastern (RR, 0.26; 95% CI, 0.23-0.30; P < .001) regions. The temporal increase in the rate of breastfeeding at discharge from hospital was smaller in the Northern region (RR, 1.36; 95% CI, 1.29-1.45; P < .001) compared to that in the Central region (RR, 1.55; 95% CI, 1.49-1.61). The decrease in the rate of fetal growth restriction was smaller in the Western (RR, 0.95; 95% CI, 0.87-1.02; P = .002) and Eastern (RR, 0.90; 95% CI, 0.82-0.98; P = .002) regions of residence compared to the Central region (RR, 0.75; 95% CI, 0.71-0.79). There were no significant regional differences in temporal patterns of preterm induction and/or preterm Caesarean delivery, or perinatal mortality.

CONCLUSION

Although trends over time demonstrated some regional differences in obstetrical interventions and perinatal outcomes, our retrospective evaluation did not reveal a consistent relationship between reductions in maternity services associated with hospital closures and systematic, population-level adverse perinatal consequences in Nova Scotia.

The psychological effects of counting fetal movements

By identifying a change in fetal activity state, fetal movement counting may help to reduce the possibility of stillbirth. Concern has arisen that such a focus on fetal activity may cause undue maternal anxiety. A prospective, controlled trial was conducted to determine whether fetal movement counting induced anxiety or other deleterious psychological effects in low-risk primigravidas. A sample of 613 healthy pregnant women was randomly assigned at 28 weeks' gestation to fetal movement counting, sleep recording, or a nonrecording control group. State and trait of anxiety, belief in sources of personal control, and attitudes toward pregnancy and infant were assessed at 28 and 37 weeks' gestation. Participation rates were high (91.4%) across all groups. Most women (90%) assigned to count fetal movements did so on a daily basis (95% of days). No significant changes in psychological status occurred in the three groups as a result of self-monitoring conditions. Independent of group assignment, all women showed a slight increase in transient state and decrease in trait of anxiety from 28 to 37 weeks. Internal locus of control and positive attitudes toward the infant increased slightly, and feelings of well-being decreased slightly for all women. It was concluded that women are willing to record fetal activity, and that fetal movement counting does not cause deleterious psychological effects in low-risk pregnant women.

Evaluation of care for the preterm infant: review of literature on follow-up of preterm and low birthweight infants. Report from the collaborative Project on Preterm and Small for Gestational Age Infants (POPS) in The Netherlands

Since the introduction of neonatal intensive care in the 1960s, mortality in very preterm and very low birthweight infants has been decreasing steadily. Consequently, interest in the outcome of surviving infants is growing. Restriction of health care resources has stressed the need for information concerning the effect of individual treatment components on mortality and morbidity. Concern about the quality in apparently normal survivors has been increasing as well. The current flood of papers on these subjects illustrates the interest in these issues. The first part of this paper reviews the methodology used in follow-up studies in the past decades. It aims at methodological problems that hamper comparison between studies and preclude unequivocal conclusions. New treatment techniques seldom were but should be evaluated by randomised trials. To monitor the combined effects of changing obstetric and neonatal techniques on perinatal outcome, studies in geographically defined populations are recommended using data from early pregnancy until at least preschool age. Comparability of outcomes could be enhanced by international agreement on standardisation of assessment methods and outcome measures. In the second part the results concerning gestational age- and birthweight-specific mortality, impairments and disabilities and the risk factors for such disorders are discussed. Increased survival of even the tiniest infants is clearly established. This increase in survival has not yet been accompanied by an apparent increase in major morbidity. However, many minor impairments are reported, occurring often in combination and predisposing these children to deviations of normal development. Important changes in the manifestation of brain damage appear to occur during development. These findings stress the importance of long-term follow-up studies.

The Provision and Evaluation of a Neonatal Resuscitation Program

The need to train perinatal staff in neonatal resuscitation is widely accepted; however, standardized educational programs have not been available. This study used a randomized control trial to evaluate a one-day neonatal resuscitation education program with 190 nurses. Experimental subjects receiving the program had significantly improved knowledge and skill performance. Knowledge, but not skill performance, was maintained at six months for the experimental group. There was a significant relationship between subjects' self-rating of knowledge and performance, suggesting that this method could be used to prioritize staff for basic or refresher training. An effective format and evaluation instruments for neonatal resuscitation training have been developed. Strategies to maintain skills should be addressed in future research.

Small hospital obstetrics: is small beautiful?

The number of deliveries in small Canadian hospitals over the last 15 years was reviewed. The two provinces with the highest percentage of deliveries in small hospitals had similar patterns of Perinatal Mortality Rates to the two provinces with the lowest percentage of small hospital deliveries. Birthweight specific mortality rates for newborns weighing greater than 2,500 grams was lower in small hospitals compared to larger hospitals in the provinces of Ontario, Newfoundland and Saskatchewan for 1985. In Ontario, for the year 1985, even when corrected for perinatal transfers and the home address of the mother, there were no significant differences in perinatal mortality between those hospitals with less than 400 births, those between 401 and 2,999 births and those with 3,000 or more births. Within the present Canadian system of perinatal regionalization, small hospital obstetrics is safe.

Perinatal mortality distributed by type of hospital in the Central Hospital District of Helsinki, Finland

In Finland as in many other countries, perinatal mortality is higher in those institutions having a higher level of care. To explain this phenomenon, mortality by weight groups was studied in different hospitals in the Central Hospital District of Helsinki in Finland in 1977-81. Among infants weighing less than 2 500 g, perinatal mortality was higher in the local hospital than in the university hospital, the higher mortality being due to the higher rate of stillborn infants. Among babies weighing over 2 500 g, the mortality was lower in local hospitals than in the university hospital. Further studies to explain the higher mortality of infants weighing over 2 500 g in the university hospital are needed.