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Kesic B, McCann N, Bowerbank SL, Standley T, Liechti J, Dean JR, Gallidabino MD. Forensic profiling of smokeless powders (SLPs) by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS): a systematic investigation into injector conditions and their effect on the characterisation of samples. Anal Bioanal Chem 2024; 416:1907-1922. [PMID: 38332189 PMCID: PMC10901999 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-024-05189-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2023] [Revised: 01/26/2024] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024]
Abstract
Smokeless powders (SLPs) are composed of a combination of thermolabile and non-thermolabile compounds. When analysed by GC-MS, injection conditions may therefore play a fundamental role on the characterisation of forensic samples. However, no systematic investigations have ever been carried out. This casts doubt on the optimal conditions that should be adopted in advanced profiling applications (e.g. class attribution and source association), especially when a traditional split/splitless (S/SL) injector is used. Herein, a study is reported that specifically focused on the evaluation of the liner type (Ltype) and inlet temperature (Tinj). Results showed that both could affect the exhaustiveness and repeatability of the observed chemical profiles, with Ltype being particularly sensitive despite typically not being clarified in published works. Perhaps as expected, degradation effects were observed for the most thermolabile compounds (e.g. nitroglycerin) at conditions maximising the heat transfer rates (Ltype = packed and Tinj ≥ 200 °C). However, these did not seem to be as influential as, perhaps, suggested in previous studies. Indeed, the harshest injection conditions in terms of heat transfer rate (Ltype = packed and Tinj = 260 °C) were found to lead to better performances (including better overall %RSDs and LODs) compared to the mildest ones. This suggested that implementing conditions minimising heat-induced breakdowns during injection was not necessarily a good strategy for comparison purposes. The reported findings represent a concrete step forward in the field, providing a robust body of data for the development of the next generation of SLP profiling methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blake Kesic
- Department of Applied Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, NE1 8ST, UK
| | - Niamh McCann
- Department of Applied Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, NE1 8ST, UK
| | - Samantha L Bowerbank
- Department of Applied Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, NE1 8ST, UK
| | - Troy Standley
- King's Forensics, Department of Analytical, Environmental & Forensic Sciences, King's College London, London, SE1 9NH, UK
| | - Jana Liechti
- King's Forensics, Department of Analytical, Environmental & Forensic Sciences, King's College London, London, SE1 9NH, UK
| | - John R Dean
- Department of Applied Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, NE1 8ST, UK
| | - Matteo D Gallidabino
- King's Forensics, Department of Analytical, Environmental & Forensic Sciences, King's College London, London, SE1 9NH, UK.
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2
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Serol M, Ahmad SM, Quintas A, Família C. Chemical Analysis of Gunpowder and Gunshot Residues. Molecules 2023; 28:5550. [PMID: 37513421 PMCID: PMC10386329 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28145550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Revised: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The identification of firearms is of paramount importance for investigating crimes involving firearms, as it establishes the link between a particular firearm and firearm-related elements found at a crime scene, such as projectiles and cartridge cases. This identification relies on the visual comparison of such elements against reference samples from suspect firearms or those existing in databases. Whenever this approach is not possible, the chemical analysis of the gunpowder and gunshot residue can provide additional information that may assist in establishing a link between samples retrieved at a crime scene and those from a suspect or in the identification of the corresponding model and manufacturer of the ammunition used. The most commonly used method for the chemical analysis of gunshot residue is scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray, which focuses on the inorganic elements present in ammunition formulation, particularly heavy metals. However, a change in the legal paradigm is pushing changes in these formulations to remove heavy metals due to their potential for environmental contamination and the health hazards they represent. For this reason, the importance of the analysis of organic compounds is leading to the adoption of a different set of analytical methodologies, mostly based on spectroscopy and chromatography. This manuscript reviews the constitution of primer and gunpowder formulations and the analytical methods currently used for detecting, characterising, and identifying their compounds. In addition, this contribution also explores how the information provided by these methodologies can be used in ammunition identification and how it is driving the development of novel applications within forensic ballistics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Serol
- Molecular Pathology and Forensic Biochemistry Laboratory, Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar Egas Moniz (CiiEM), Instituto Universitário Egas Moniz (IUEM), Campus Universitário-Quinta da Granja, Monte da Caparica, 2829-511 Caparica, Portugal
| | - Samir Marcos Ahmad
- Molecular Pathology and Forensic Biochemistry Laboratory, Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar Egas Moniz (CiiEM), Instituto Universitário Egas Moniz (IUEM), Campus Universitário-Quinta da Granja, Monte da Caparica, 2829-511 Caparica, Portugal
- Forensic and Psychological Sciences Laboratory Egas Moniz, Campus Universitário-Quinta da Granja, Monte da Caparica, 2829-511 Caparica, Portugal
| | - Alexandre Quintas
- Molecular Pathology and Forensic Biochemistry Laboratory, Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar Egas Moniz (CiiEM), Instituto Universitário Egas Moniz (IUEM), Campus Universitário-Quinta da Granja, Monte da Caparica, 2829-511 Caparica, Portugal
- Forensic and Psychological Sciences Laboratory Egas Moniz, Campus Universitário-Quinta da Granja, Monte da Caparica, 2829-511 Caparica, Portugal
| | - Carlos Família
- Molecular Pathology and Forensic Biochemistry Laboratory, Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar Egas Moniz (CiiEM), Instituto Universitário Egas Moniz (IUEM), Campus Universitário-Quinta da Granja, Monte da Caparica, 2829-511 Caparica, Portugal
- Forensic and Psychological Sciences Laboratory Egas Moniz, Campus Universitário-Quinta da Granja, Monte da Caparica, 2829-511 Caparica, Portugal
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3
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Gallegos SF, Aviles-Rosa EO, DeChant MT, Hall NJ, Prada-Tiedemann PA. Explosive Odor Signature Profiling: A Review of recent advances in technical analysis and detection. Forensic Sci Int 2023; 347:111652. [PMID: 37019070 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2023.111652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2022] [Revised: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/31/2023]
Abstract
With the ever-increasing threat of improvised explosive devices (IEDs) and homemade explosives (HME) both domestically and abroad, detection of explosives and explosive related materials is an area of urgent importance for preventing terrorist activities around the globe. Canines are a common biological detector used in explosive detection due to their enhanced olfactory abilities, high mobility, efficient standoff sampling, and optimal identification of vapor sources. While other sensors based on different principles have emerged, an important concept for the rapid field detection of explosives is understanding key volatile organic compounds (VOCs) associated with these materials. Explosive detection technology needs to be on par with a large number of threats including an array of explosive materials as well as novel chemicals used in the manufacture of IEDs. Within this much needed area of research for law enforcement and homeland security applications, several studies have sought to understand the explosive odor profile from a range of materials. This review aims to provide a foundational overview of these studies to provide a summary of instrumental analysis to date on the various types of explosive odor profiles evaluated focusing on the experimental approaches and laboratory techniques utilized in the chemical characterization of explosive vapors and mixtures. By expanding upon these concepts, a greater understanding of the explosive vapor signature can be achieved, providing for enhanced chemical and biological sensing of explosive threats as well as expanding upon existing laboratory-based models for continued sensor development.
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Maitre M, Horder M, Kirkbride KP, Gassner AL, Weyermann C, Gupta A, Beavis A, Roux C. An application example of the likelihood ratio approach to the evaluation of organic gunshot residues using a fictional scenario and recently published data. Forensic Sci Int 2022; 335:111267. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2022.111267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Revised: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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5
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Gallegos S, Aviles-Rosa EO, Hall NJ, PradaTiedemann PA. Headspace Sampling of Smokeless Powder Odor in a Dynamic Airflow Context. Forensic Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2022.100402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Abstract
Abstract
Background
Gunshot residue (GSR) is a shred of important trace evidence which helps forensic scientists solve a huge range of incidents related to firearms. The identification of the shooter to bullet identification from a gunshot wound help reconstruct a scene of the crime.
Main body
The review of this scientific paper is based on gunshot residue, its composition, and the growing advanced technology which allow us to study about how GSR analysis help to identify and detect residues. Various methods are acquired to identify and analyze organic and inorganic residues present when ammunition is fired. The review highlights the composition of GSR, its collection methods, and analysis part which emphasize on all the methods developed so far. The use of conventional methods including colorimetric and instrumentation-based analysis and advanced technology including electrochemical technique for detecting residues from the last 50 years. Spot tests or chemical tests were performed but they degrade the sample and can sometimes cause hindrance with some other nearby material present at the crime scene. Instrumentation techniques including AAS, ICP-MS, SEM, SEM-EDX, GC, HPLC, etc. are discussed in detail. Mostly advanced electrochemical methods developed are for inorganic gunshot residues (IGSR), but some researchers worked on both residues. Also, the fabricated electrochemical cells are replaced by a single strip-based technique for easy detection. So, to combat these issues, various scientists are moving towards sensor-based methods for rapid and reliable detection. These methods are more user-friendly, sensitive, and cost-effective and provide rapid detection results.
Conclusions
This review results in the composition of GSR, its collection methods, and analysis using sophisticated methods that emphasize all the methods developed so far and it also culminates the merits and demerits of all detection methods.
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Identification and differentiation of commercial and military explosives via high performance liquid chromatography – high resolution mass spectrometry (HPLC-HRMS), X-ray diffractometry (XRD) and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF): Towards a forensic substance database on explosives. Forensic Sci Int 2020; 308:110180. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2020.110180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2019] [Revised: 01/22/2020] [Accepted: 02/01/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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8
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Secondary transfer of organic gunshot residues: Empirical data to assist the evaluation of three scenarios. Sci Justice 2019; 59:58-66. [DOI: 10.1016/j.scijus.2018.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2018] [Revised: 08/15/2018] [Accepted: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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9
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Maitre M, Kirkbride K, Horder M, Roux C, Beavis A. Current perspectives in the interpretation of gunshot residues in forensic science: A review. Forensic Sci Int 2017; 270:1-11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2016.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2016] [Revised: 08/05/2016] [Accepted: 09/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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10
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Perez JJ, Watson DA, Levis RJ. Classification of Gunshot Residue Using Laser Electrospray Mass Spectrometry and Offline Multivariate Statistical Analysis. Anal Chem 2016; 88:11390-11398. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b01438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Johnny J. Perez
- Center
for Advanced Photonics Research, Department of Chemistry, Temple University, 1901 North 13th Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19122, United States
| | - David A. Watson
- Center
for Advanced Photonics Research, Department of Chemistry, Temple University, 1901 North 13th Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19122, United States
| | - Robert J. Levis
- Center
for Advanced Photonics Research, Department of Chemistry, Temple University, 1901 North 13th Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19122, United States
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11
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Gassner AL, Ribeiro C, Kobylinska J, Zeichner A, Weyermann C. Organic gunshot residues: Observations about sampling and transfer mechanisms. Forensic Sci Int 2016; 266:369-378. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2016.06.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2016] [Revised: 06/13/2016] [Accepted: 06/20/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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12
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LC–MS method development and comparison of sampling materials for the analysis of organic gunshot residues. Forensic Sci Int 2016; 264:47-55. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2016.03.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2015] [Revised: 12/09/2015] [Accepted: 03/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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13
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López-López M, Merk V, García-Ruiz C, Kneipp J. Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy for the analysis of smokeless gunpowders and macroscopic gunshot residues. Anal Bioanal Chem 2016; 408:4965-73. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-016-9591-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2016] [Revised: 04/15/2016] [Accepted: 04/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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14
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Rowe WF. Chemical methods in firearms analysis. Forensic Chem 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/9781118897768.ch10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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15
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Hernández-Paredes J, Hernández-Negrete O, Carrillo-Torres RC, Sánchez-Zeferino R, Duarte-Moller A, Alvarez-Ramos ME. Experimental and theoretical investigation on the molecular structure, spectroscopic and electric properties of 2,4-dinitrodiphenylamine, 2-nitro-4-(trifluoromethyl)aniline and 4-bromo-2-nitroaniline. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2015; 149:240-253. [PMID: 25965171 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2015.04.080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2014] [Revised: 04/23/2015] [Accepted: 04/25/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
2,4-Dinitrodiphenylamine (I), 2-nitro-4-(trifluoromethyl)aniline (II) and 4-bromo-2-nitroaniline (III) have been investigated by DFT and experimental FTIR, Raman and UV-Vis spectroscopies. The gas-phase molecular geometries were consistent with similar compounds already reported in the literature. From the vibrational analysis, the main functional groups were identified and their absorption bands were assigned. Some differences were found between the calculated and the experimental UV-Vis spectra. These differences were analyzed and explained in terms of the TD-DFT/B3LYP limitations, which were mainly attributed to charge-transfer (CT) effects. These findings were in agreement with previous works, which reported that TD-DFT/B3LYP calculations diverge from experimental results when the electronic transitions involve CT. Despite this, TD-DFT/B3LYP calculations provided satisfactory results and a detailed description of the electronic transitions involved in the absorption bands of the UV-Vis spectra. In terms of the NLO properties, it was found that compound (I) is a good candidate for NLO applications and deserves further study due to its good β values. However, the β values for compounds (II) and (III) were negatively affected compared to those found on o-nitroaniline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier Hernández-Paredes
- Departamento de Física, Universidad de Sonora (UNISON), Edificio 3R (Planta Alta) Blvd. Luis Encinas J y Rosales S/N Col. Centro, Hermosillo, Sonora C.P. 83000, Mexico.
| | - Ofelia Hernández-Negrete
- Departamento de Física, Universidad de Sonora (UNISON), Edificio 3R (Planta Alta) Blvd. Luis Encinas J y Rosales S/N Col. Centro, Hermosillo, Sonora C.P. 83000, Mexico
| | - Roberto C Carrillo-Torres
- Departamento de Física, Universidad de Sonora (UNISON), Edificio 3R (Planta Alta) Blvd. Luis Encinas J y Rosales S/N Col. Centro, Hermosillo, Sonora C.P. 83000, Mexico
| | - Raúl Sánchez-Zeferino
- Departamento de Física, Universidad de Sonora (UNISON), Edificio 3R (Planta Alta) Blvd. Luis Encinas J y Rosales S/N Col. Centro, Hermosillo, Sonora C.P. 83000, Mexico
| | - Alberto Duarte-Moller
- Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados S. C. (CIMAV), Miguel de Cervantes 120, Chihuahua, Chihuahua C.P. 31109, Mexico
| | - Mario E Alvarez-Ramos
- Departamento de Física, Universidad de Sonora (UNISON), Edificio 3R (Planta Alta) Blvd. Luis Encinas J y Rosales S/N Col. Centro, Hermosillo, Sonora C.P. 83000, Mexico
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Benito S, Abrego Z, Sánchez A, Unceta N, Goicolea MA, Barrio RJ. Characterization of organic gunshot residues in lead-free ammunition using a new sample collection device for liquid chromatography–quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Forensic Sci Int 2015; 246:79-85. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2014] [Revised: 10/31/2014] [Accepted: 11/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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17
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Alizadeh N, Farokhcheh A. Simultaneous determination of diphenylamine and nitrosodiphenylamine by photochemically induced fluorescence and synchronous fluorimetry using double scans method. Talanta 2014; 121:239-46. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2013.11.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2013] [Revised: 11/17/2013] [Accepted: 11/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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18
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Thomas JL, Lincoln D, McCord BR. Separation and Detection of Smokeless Powder Additives by Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography with Tandem Mass Spectrometry (UPLC/MS/MS),. J Forensic Sci 2013; 58:609-15. [DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.12096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2011] [Revised: 01/23/2012] [Accepted: 03/26/2012] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L. Thomas
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry; Florida International University; 11200 SW 8th Street; CP 304, Miami; FL; 33199
| | - Danielle Lincoln
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry; Florida International University; 11200 SW 8th Street; CP 304, Miami; FL; 33199
| | - Bruce R. McCord
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry; Florida International University; 11200 SW 8th Street; CP 304, Miami; FL; 33199
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López-López M, Bravo J, García-Ruiz C, Torre M. Diphenylamine and derivatives as predictors of gunpowder age by means of HPLC and statistical models. Talanta 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2012.10.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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20
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Perez JJ, Flanigan PM, Brady JJ, Levis RJ. Classification of Smokeless Powders Using Laser Electrospray Mass Spectrometry and Offline Multivariate Statistical Analysis. Anal Chem 2012; 85:296-302. [DOI: 10.1021/ac302661k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Johnny J. Perez
- Center for
Advanced Photonics
Research, Department of Chemistry, Temple University, 1901 N. 13th St., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19122, United States
| | - Paul M. Flanigan
- Center for
Advanced Photonics
Research, Department of Chemistry, Temple University, 1901 N. 13th St., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19122, United States
| | - John J. Brady
- U.S. Army Research Laboratory, 2800 Powder Mill Road, Adelphi, Maryland
20783, United States
| | - Robert J. Levis
- Center for
Advanced Photonics
Research, Department of Chemistry, Temple University, 1901 N. 13th St., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19122, United States
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Lockett MR, Mirica KA, Mace CR, Blackledge RD, Whitesides GM. Analyzing forensic evidence based on density with magnetic levitation. J Forensic Sci 2012; 58:40-5. [PMID: 22804094 DOI: 10.1111/j.1556-4029.2012.02221.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2011] [Revised: 10/07/2011] [Accepted: 10/22/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
This paper describes a method for determining the density of contact trace objects with magnetic levitation (MagLev). MagLev measurements accurately determine the density (± 0.0002 g/cm(3) ) of a diamagnetic object and are compatible with objects that are nonuniform in shape and size. The MagLev device (composed of two permanent magnets with like poles facing) and the method described provide a means of accurately determining the density of trace objects. This method is inexpensive, rapid, and verifiable and provides numerical values--independent of the specific apparatus or analyst--that correspond to the absolute density of the sample that may be entered into a searchable database. We discuss the feasibility of MagLev as a possible means of characterizing forensic-related evidence and demonstrate the ability of MagLev to (i) determine the density of samples of glitter and gunpowder, (ii) separate glitter particles of different densities, and (iii) determine the density of a glitter sample that was removed from a complex sample matrix.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R Lockett
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
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Bueno J, Sikirzhytski V, Lednev IK. Raman Spectroscopic Analysis of Gunshot Residue Offering Great Potential for Caliber Differentiation. Anal Chem 2012; 84:4334-9. [DOI: 10.1021/ac203429x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Justin Bueno
- Department
of Chemistry, University at Albany, SUNY, 1400 Washington Avenue, Albany, New York 12222,
United States
| | - Vitali Sikirzhytski
- Department
of Chemistry, University at Albany, SUNY, 1400 Washington Avenue, Albany, New York 12222,
United States
| | - Igor K. Lednev
- Department
of Chemistry, University at Albany, SUNY, 1400 Washington Avenue, Albany, New York 12222,
United States
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23
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López-López M, Ferrando JL, García-Ruiz C. Comparative analysis of smokeless gunpowders by Fourier transform infrared and Raman spectroscopy. Anal Chim Acta 2012; 717:92-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2011.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2011] [Revised: 12/09/2011] [Accepted: 12/10/2011] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Abstract
A comprehensive review of the scientific literature on gunshot residue (GSR) is presented. Aspects of both inorganic and organic GSR are discussed, from formation and distribution, to sample collection, preparation, and analysis using a variety of techniques. The interpretation of GSR results is also considered including issues surrounding the contamination, distribution, and transfer of GSR. Potential problems with ulterior sources of GSR like particles have been reported in the literature. For example, particles from environmental and occupational sources have been highlighted as exhibiting similar chemical and morphological characteristics to GSR. These findings are put into context with regard to interpreting samples. A move toward a "case by case" approach is argued to be more preferable to a "formal" classification system where possible. The analysis of both inorganic and organic compositions of residue samples as well as morphological considerations is considered to be a more ideal approach to GSR analysis, wherever practicable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Dalby
- Department of Chemistry and Forensics, School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University, Clifton Lane, Nottingham NG11 8NS, UK
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25
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Scherperel G, Reid GE, Waddell Smith R. Characterization of smokeless powders using nanoelectrospray ionization mass spectrometry (nESI-MS). Anal Bioanal Chem 2009; 394:2019-28. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-009-2689-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2008] [Revised: 02/04/2009] [Accepted: 02/06/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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26
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Mattheis JP, Rudell DR. Diphenylamine metabolism in 'braeburn' apples stored under conditions conducive to the development of internal browning. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2008; 56:3381-3385. [PMID: 18380463 DOI: 10.1021/jf703768w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Diphenylamine metabolism and ethylene action were evaluated as factors influencing the development of 'Braeburn' apple internal browning and cavitation during cold storage. Apples treated with the antioxidant diphenylamine (DPA) and/or the ethylene action inhibitor 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) were held at 1 degrees C for up to 6 months in air or a controlled atmosphere (CA) containing 1 kPa of O2 and 3 kPa of CO2. Cortex tissues from fruit without disorders as well as from symptomatic and asymptomatic areas of fruit with disorders were analyzed for DPA and DPA derivative content. Internal browning and cavities developed in control and 1-MCP-treated fruit stored in CA, whereas air-stored and CA fruit treated with DPA or with DPA and 1-MCP prior to storage did not develop disorders. Depending on the storage regimen and duration, less DPA was detected in 1-MCP-treated fruit. The 4-hydroxydiphenylamine (4OHDPA) content of control fruit decreased during air storage duration but increased between 2 and 4 months in CA storage. 4OHDPA content in 1-MCP-treated fruit increased with storage duration in CA but not air. N-Nitrosodiphenylamine (NODPA) was detected after 2 months in control fruit stored in air or CA and in 1-MCP-treated fruit stored in CA, and NODPA content in control fruit was higher compared to that in 1-MCP-treated fruit. Accumulation of 4-methoxydiphenylamine (4MeODPA) in control fruit stored in air increased with storage duration, but 4MeODPA content did not change in 1-MCP-treated fruit stored in air or CA. 2-Nitrodiphenylamine content was reduced by prestorage treatment with 1-MCP, but storage environment and duration had no effect on its accumulation. The results indicate that CA storage increases the risk of disorder development in 'Braeburn' apples, that DPA can prevent disorder development, and that the content of DPA and DPA derivatives is influenced by storage environment and ethylene action. A clear relationship between DPA derivative formation and storage conditions that promote internal browning was not apparent.
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Affiliation(s)
- James P Mattheis
- Tree Fruit Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, Wenatchee, Washington 98801, USA.
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Laza D, Nys B, Kinder JD, Kirsch-De Mesmaeker A, Moucheron C. Development of a Quantitative LC-MS/MS Method for the Analysis of Common Propellant Powder Stabilizers in Gunshot Residue. J Forensic Sci 2007; 52:842-50. [PMID: 17567286 DOI: 10.1111/j.1556-4029.2007.00490.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In traditional scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive X-ray analysis of gunshot residue (GSR), one has to cope more and more frequently with limitations of this technique due to the use of lead-free ammunition or ammunition lacking heavy metals. New methods for the analysis of the organic components of common propellant powder stabilizers were developed based on liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). A multiple reactions monitoring scanning method was created for the screening of akardite II, ethylcentralite, diphenylamine, methylcentralite, N-nitrosodiphenylamine, 2-nitrodiphenylamine, and 4-nitrodiphenylamine, present in standards mixtures. Five out of seven of these target compounds can be selectively identified and distinguished from the two others with a high accuracy. Samples from the hands of a shooter were collected by swabbing and underwent solid phase extraction prior to analysis. Detection limits ranging from 5 to 115 mug injected were achieved. Results from several firing trials show that the LC-MS/MS method is suitable for the detection of stabilizers in samples collected following the firing of 9 mm Para ammunitions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Désiré Laza
- National Institute of Criminalistics and Criminology (NICC), Ballistics Section, Chaussée de Vilvorde 98, 1120 Brussels, Belgium
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Iglesias SL, Desimone MF, Copello GJ, Bertinatto JA, Giorgieri SA, Diaz LE. Analysis of diphenylamine and impurities using monolithic column with electrochemical detection. JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2006. [DOI: 10.1134/s106193480606013x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Rudell DR, Mattheis JP, Fellman JK. Influence of ethylene action, storage atmosphere, and storage duration on diphenylamine and diphenylamine derivative content of Granny Smith apple peel. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2006; 54:2365-71. [PMID: 16536620 DOI: 10.1021/jf052460n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
The application of diphenylamine (DPA) to prevent the apple peel disorder superficial scald can result in accumulation of a number of DPA derivatives resulting from C-nitration, C-hydroxylation, O-methylation, and N-nitrosation during fruit storage. As the presence of these compounds may be indicative of metabolic processes leading to superficial scald development, the contents of DPA and DPA derivatives were determined in fruits treated at harvest with DPA or DPA plus the ethylene action inhibitor 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP), which also prevents scald development. Influences of fruit maturity, storage environment, storage duration, and a 14 day poststorage ripening period on accumulation of DPA metabolites were also assessed. Poststorage ripening, 1-MCP treatment, and controlled atmosphere storage had varied effects on DPA derivative contents suggesting that reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, such as *OH, *NO, and *NO2, or enzyme-catalyzed reactions may be present during certain ripening and senescence-related physiological processes. Definitive correlations between superficial scald incidence and contents of specific derivatives were not observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- David R Rudell
- Tree Fruit Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1104 North Western Avenue, Wenatchee, Washington 98801, USA
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Rudell DR, Mattheis JP, Fellman JK. Relationship of superficial scald development and alpha-farnesene oxidation to reactions of diphenylamine and diphenylamine derivatives in Cv. Granny Smith apple peel. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2005; 53:8382-9. [PMID: 16218691 DOI: 10.1021/jf0512407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Cv. Granny Smith apple fruit, treated at harvest with aqueous emulsions containing diphenylamine (DPA) and DPA derivatives, were evaluated for the peel disorder superficial scald (scald) after 6 months of cold storage at 1 degrees C plus 0 or 7 days at 20 degrees C. Metabolism of these derivatives and alpha-farnesene oxidation were also evaluated after 6 months. Derivatives substituted at the para position prevented scald, but scald developed on fruit treated with derivatives substituted in the amino, ortho, or meta positions. The extent of scald control was also dependent on the chemical nature of the functional group used to derivatize DPA. Hydroxylation of DPA and DPA derivatives during storage was not associated with scald control. Methoxylated DPA derivatives produced during storage resulted from O-methylation of C-hydroxylated derivatives rather than C-methoxylation of DPA. N-Nitrosodiphenylamine provided partial scald control, possibly resulting from its degradation to DPA, indicating that the amino hydrogen of DPA may be crucial for scald control. Results suggest that functional group position and chemical properties both contribute to the efficacy of DPA derivatives for scald control.
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Affiliation(s)
- David R Rudell
- Tree Fruit Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 1104 N. Western Ave., Wenatchee, Washington 98801, USA
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Rudell DR, Mattheis JP, Fellman JK. Evaluation of diphenylamine derivatives in apple peel using gradient reversed-phase liquid chromatography with ultraviolet–visible absorption and atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mass selective detection. J Chromatogr A 2005; 1081:202-9. [PMID: 16038210 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2005.05.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
A method was developed for extracting, identifying, and quantifying diphenylamine (DPA) derivatives in the peel of DPA-treated apples using gradient reversed-phase liquid chromatography with ultraviolet-visible absorption and atmospheric pressure chemical ionization detection (LC-UV-vis-APCI-MS). Compounds routinely analyzed using this method included hydroxylated, nitrosated, nitrated, and methoxylated diphenylamine derivatives. Analysis of peel treated with 0-8 g L(-1) DPA showed that peel DPA content was a limiting factor in derivative production and that recovery of most compounds over this range was linear.
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Affiliation(s)
- David R Rudell
- Tree Fruit Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 1104 N. Western Ave., Wenatchee, WA 98801, USA
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Bestimmung von Nitrodiphenylaminen und verwandten Verbindungen im Sickerwasser einer Rüstungsaltlast. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005. [DOI: 10.1007/bf03038688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Abstract
Diphenylamine (DPA) is a compound from the third European Union (EU) list of priority pollutants. It was assigned by the EU to Germany to assess and control its environmental risks. DPA and derivatives are most commonly used as stabilizers in nitrocellulose-containing explosives and propellants, in the perfumery, and as antioxidants in the rubber and elastomer industry. DPA is also widely used to prevent post-harvest deterioration of apple and pear crops. DPA is a parent compound of many derivatives, which are used for the production of dyes, pharmaceuticals, photography chemicals and further small-scale applications. Diphenylamines are still produced worldwide by the chemical industries. First reports showed that DPA was found in soil and groundwater. Some ecotoxicological studies demonstrated the potential hazard of various diphenylamines to the aquatic environment and to bacteria and animals. Studies on the biodegradability of DPA and its derivatives are very sparse. Therefore, further investigation is required to determine the complete dimension of the potential environmental hazard and to introduce possible (bio)remediation techniques for sites that are contaminated with this class of compounds. This is the first detailed review on DPA and some derivatives summarizing their environmental relevance as it is published in the literature so far and this review will recommend conducting further research in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Drzyzga
- Department of Marine Microbiology, Center for Environmental Research and Environmental Technology (UFT), University of Bremen, Leobener Strasse, 28359 Bremen, Germany.
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Developing a Quantitative Extraction Technique for Determining the Organic Additives in Smokeless Handgun Powder. J Forensic Sci 2001. [DOI: 10.1520/jfs15051j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Drzyzga O. Umweltrelevanz von Diphenylamin — Ein Stoff der 3. EU-Altstoffprioritätenliste. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1999. [DOI: 10.1007/bf03037729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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High-Performance Liquid Chromatographic Analysis with Fluorescence Detection of Ethyl Centralite and 2,4-Dinitrotoluene in Gunshot Residues After Derivatization with 9-Fluorenylmethylchloroformate. J Forensic Sci 1996. [DOI: 10.1520/jfs15416j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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