A method for simultaneous determination of the two possible products of acetohydroxy acid synthase

Overall analyses of the reactions catalyzed by acetohydroxyacid synthase/acetolactate synthase using a precolumn derivatization-HPLC method

A precolumn derivatization-HPLC method using 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine and 4-nitro-o-phenylenediamine as respective labeling reagents for comprehensive analyses of the reactions catalyzed by acetohydroxyacid synthase (AHAS)/acetolactate synthase (ALS) is developed and evaluated in this research. Comparison with the classic Bauerle' UV assay which can analyze the enzymes only through measurement of acetoin production, the HPLC method shows advantages because it can analyze the enzymes not only via determination of consumption of the substrate pyruvate, but also via measurement of formation of the products including acetoin, 2,3-butanedione, and acetaldehyde in the enzymatic reactions. Thus the results deduced from the HPLC method can reflect the trait of each enzyme in a more precise manner. As far as we know, this is the first time that the reactions mediated by AHAS/ALS using pyruvate as a single substrate are globally analyzed and the features of the enzymes are properly discussed.

Metabolic engineering of Candida glabrata for diacetyl production

In this study, Candida glabrata, an efficient pyruvate-producing strain, was metabolically engineered for the production of the food ingredient diacetyl. A diacetyl biosynthetic pathway was reconstructed based on genetic modifications and medium optimization. The former included (i) channeling carbon flux into the diacetyl biosynthetic pathway by amplification of acetolactate synthase, (ii) elimination of the branched pathway of α-acetolactate by deleting the ILV5 gene, and (iii) restriction of diacetyl degradation by deleting the BDH gene. The resultant strain showed an almost 1∶1 co-production of α-acetolactate and diacetyl (0.95 g L(-1)). Furthermore, addition of Fe3+ to the medium enhanced the conversion of α-acetolactate to diacetyl and resulted in a two-fold increase in diacetyl production (2.1 g L(-1)). In addition, increased carbon flux was further channeled into diacetyl biosynthetic pathway and a titer of 4.7 g L(-1) of diacetyl was achieved by altering the vitamin level in the flask culture. Thus, this study illustrates that C. glabrata could be tailored as an attractive platform for enhanced biosynthesis of beneficial products from pyruvate by metabolic engineering strategies.

Production of acetolactate byStreptococcus diacetylactisandLeuconostocspp

The effect of several parameters on the decarboxylation of α-acetolactic acid (ALA) to diacetyl and acetoin was studied in model experiments. At temperatures > 50 °C, relatively more diacety1 than acetoin was produced. Regardless of temperature, HC1 increased the production of acetoin (58 mol% conversion at max.) and prevented the production of diacetyl. Steam distillation of ALA caused ~ 55 mol%/h conversion to acetoin and 7 mol%/h to diacetyl. Production of acetoin was proportional to the ALA concentration. Based on these results two methods for the quantitative measurement of ALA were developed. Only one of 17 strains ofStreptococcus diacetylactis (Lactococcus lactissubsp.lactisbiovar.diacetilactis, new nomenclature) and three of three strains ofLeuconostocspp. produced ALA. The implications of these findings are discussed.

Identification and functional analysis of the gene encoding methionine-gamma-lyase in Brevibacterium linens

The enzymatic degradation of L-methionine and subsequent formation of volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs) is believed to be essential for flavor development in cheese. L-methionine-gamma-lyase (MGL) can convert L-methionine to methanethiol (MTL), alpha-ketobutyrate, and ammonia. The mgl gene encoding MGL was cloned from the type strain Brevibacterium linens ATCC 9175 known to produce copious amounts of MTL and related VSCs. The disruption of the mgl gene, achieved in strain ATCC 9175, resulted in a 62% decrease in thiol-producing activity and a 97% decrease in total VSC production in the knockout strain. Our work shows that L-methionine degradation via gamma-elimination is a key step in the formation of VSCs in B. linens.

Biosynthesis of 2-aceto-2-hydroxy acids: acetolactate synthases and acetohydroxyacid synthases

Two groups of enzymes are classified as acetolactate synthase (EC 4. 1.3.18). This review deals chiefly with the FAD-dependent, biosynthetic enzymes which readily catalyze the formation of acetohydroxybutyrate from pyruvate and 2-oxobutyrate, as well as of acetolactate from two molecules of pyruvate (the ALS/AHAS group). These enzymes are generally susceptible to inhibition by one or more of the branched-chain amino acids which are ultimate products of the acetohydroxyacids, as well as by several classes of herbicides (sulfonylureas, imidazolinones and others). Some ALS/AHASs also catalyze the (non-physiological) oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate, leading to peracetic acid; the possible relationship of this process to oxygen toxicity is considered. The bacterial ALS/AHAS which have been well characterized consist of catalytic subunits (around 60 kDa) and smaller regulatory subunits in an alpha2beta2 structure. In the case of Escherichia coli isozyme III, assembly and dissociation of the holoenzyme has been studied. The quaternary structure of the eukaryotic enzymes is less clear and in plants and yeast only catalytic polypeptides (homologous to those of bacteria) have been clearly identified. The presence of regulatory polypeptides in these organisms cannot be ruled out, however, and genes which encode putative ALS/AHAS regulatory subunits have been identified in some cases. A consensus sequence can be constructed from the 21 sequences which have been shown experimentally to represent ALS/AHAS catalytic polypeptides. Many other sequences fit this consensus, but some genes identified as putative 'acetolactate synthase genes' are almost certainly not ALS/AHAS. The solution of the crystal structures of several thiamin diphosphate (ThDP)-dependent enzymes which are homologous to ALS/AHAS, together with the availability of many amino acid sequences for the latter enzymes, has made it possible for two laboratories to propose similar, reasonable models for a dimer of catalytic subunits of an ALS/AHAS. A number of characteristics of these enzymes can now be better understood on the basis of such models: the nature of the herbicide binding site, the structural role of FAD and the binding of ThDP-Mg2+. The models are also guides for experimental testing of ideas concerning structure-function relationships in these enzymes, e.g. the nature of the substrate recognition site. Among the important remaining questions is how the enzyme suppresses alternative reactions of the intrinsically reactive hydroxyethylThDP enamine formed by the decarboxylation of the first substrate molecule and specifically promotes its condensation with 2-oxobutyrate or pyruvate.

Metabolic effects of inhibitors of two enzymes of the branched-chain amino acid pathway in Salmonella typhimurium

The metabolic effects of inhibitors of two enzymes in the pathway for biosynthesis of branched-chain amino acids were examined in Salmonella typhimurium mutant strain TV105, expressing a single isozyme of acetohydroxy acid synthase (AHAS), AHAS isozyme II. One inhibitor was the sulfonylurea herbicide sulfometuron methyl (SMM), which inhibits this isozyme and AHAS of other organisms, and the other was N-isopropyl oxalylhydroxamate (IpOHA), which inhibits ketol-acid reductoisomerase (KARI). The effects of the inhibitors on growth, levels of several enzymes of the pathway, and levels of intermediates of the pathway were measured. The intracellular concentration of the AHAS substrate 2-ketobutyrate increased on addition of SMM, but a lack of correlation between increased ketobutyrate and growth inhibition suggests that the former is not the immediate cause of the latter. The levels of the keto acid precursor of valine, but not of the precursor of isoleucine, were drastically decreased by SMM, and valine, but not isoleucine, partially overcame SMM inhibition. This apparent stronger effect of SMM on the flux into the valine arm, as opposed to the isoleucine arm, of the branched-chain amino acid pathway is explained by the kinetics of the AHAS reaction, as well as by the different roles of pyruvate, ketobutyrate, and the valine precursor in metabolism. The organization of the pathway thus potentiates the inhibitory effect of SMM. IpOHA has strong initial effects at lower concentrations than does SMM and leads to increases both in the acetohydroxy acid substrates of KARI and, surprisingly, in ketobutyrate. Valine completely protected strain TV105 from IpOHA at the MIC. A number of explanations for this effect can be ruled out, so that some unknown arrangement of the enzymes involved must be suggested. IpOHA led to initial cessation of growth, with partial recovery after a time whose duration increased with the inhibitor concentration. The recovery is apparently due to induction of new KARI synthesis, as well as disappearance of IpOHA from the medium.

Nonenzymatic acetolactate oxidation to diacetyl by flavin, nicotinamide and quinone coenzymes

Acetolactate nonenzymatically reduced flavins, quinones and nicotinamide coenzymes in a time-dependent manner at physiological pH and moderate temperature. In the presence of excess acetolactate, the reduction of FAD and NAD+ followed pseudo-first-order kinetics. The rate of reduction was proportional to the concentration of acetolactate, and the rate constants at 37 degrees C and pH 7.5 were 4.8 x 10(-2) M-1 s-1 and 7.4 x 10(-3) M-1 s-1 for FAD and NAD+, respectively. In contrast, ubiquinone reduction followed pseudo-zero-order kinetics in the presence of excess acetolactate. At 37 degrees C and pH 7.5, the rate of reduction was proportional to the acetolactate concentration, and the apparent rate constant was 8.3 x 10(-6) s-1. In contrast to FAD, the rate of reduction of ubiquinone was higher at low pH. The kinetics of ubiquinone reduction suggested that the rate-limiting step was acetolactate decarboxylation and formation of the enolate anion, whereas the rate of FAD reduction was governed by the second-order reaction of the enolate anion. Following the oxidation, acetolactate was converted to diacetyl. Reduced FAD formed by the reaction with acetolactate generated a low rate of O2 consumption during assays of the oxygenase activity of acetohydroxy acid synthase. The reaction of acetolactate with quinones may provide a mechanism for the nonenzymatic formation diacetyl in whole milk.

Purification and characterization of the valine sensitive acetolactate synthase from Serratia marcescens ATCC 25419

The valine sensitive acetolactate synthase (ALS) isozyme from Serratia marcescens ATCC 25419 was purified to homogeneity. Analysis of the native molecular weight of the purified enzyme by the native pore gradient polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis indicated the molecular weight of about 178,000 and sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis showed the enzyme to be composed of two different types of subunits with molecular weights of 62,000 and 35,000. The molar ratio of the two polypeptides was estimated to be 1, suggesting that native enzyme is composed of two large subunits and two small subunits. The enzyme exhibits homotropic allosterism with pyruvate unlike other enteric ALS isozymes. The specificity ratio R (V[acetohydroxybutyrate]/V[acetolactate] = R.[alpha-ketobutyrate]/pyruvate]), of the enzyme was found to be 0 suggesting that the Serratia ALS has very high specificity for pyruvate. The pH optimum was around 7.5, and the enzyme was stable at 50 degrees C for 30 min. The pI value for the purified enzyme was 5.2. The concentration of branched chain amino acids for 50% inhibition of the enzyme was 0.1 mM for valine, and 1 mM for leucine and isoleucine, respectively.

Physiological implications of the substrate specificities of acetohydroxy acid synthases from varied organisms

Acetohydroxy acid synthase (AHAS; EC 4.1.3.18) catalyzes the following two parallel, physiologically important reactions: condensation of two molecules of pyruvate to form acetolactate (AL), in the pathway to valine and leucine, and condensation of pyruvate plus 2-ketobutyrate to form acetohydroxybutyrate (AHB), in the pathway to isoleucine. We have determined the specificity ratio R with regard to these two reactions (where VAHB and VAL are rates of formation of the respective products) as follows: VAHB/VAL = R [2-ketobutyrate]/[pyruvate] for 14 enzymes from 10 procaryotic and eucaryotic organisms. Each organism considered has at least one AHAS of R greater than 20, and some appear to contain but a single biosynthetic AHAS. The implications of this for the design of the pathway are discussed. The selective pressure for high specificity for 2-ketobutyrate versus pyruvate implies that the 2-ketobutyrate concentration is much lower than the pyruvate concentration in all these organisms. It seems important for 2-ketobutyrate levels to be relatively low to avoid a variety of metabolic interferences. These results also reinforce the conclusion that biosynthetic AHAS isozymes of low R (1 to 2) are a special adaptation for heterotrophic growth on certain poor carbon sources. Two catabolic "pH 6 AL-synthesizing enzymes" are shown to be highly specific for AL formation only (R less than 0.1).

Physiological implications of the specificity of acetohydroxy acid synthase isozymes of enteric bacteria

The rates of formation of the two alternative products of acetohydroxy acid synthase (AHAS) have been determined by a new analytical method (N. Gollop, Z. Barak, and D. M. Chipman, Anal. Biochem., 160:323-331, 1987). For each of the three distinct isozymes of AHAS in Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium, a specificity ratio, R, was defined: Formula: see text, which is constant over a wide range of substrate concentrations. This is consistent with competition between pyruvate and 2-ketobutyrate for an active acetaldehyde intermediate formed irreversibly after addition of the first pyruvate moiety to the enzyme. Isozyme I showed no product preference (R = 1), whereas isozymes II and III form acetohydroxybutyrate (AHB) at approximately 180- and 60-fold faster rates, respectively, than acetolactate (AL) at equal pyruvate and 2-ketobutyrate concentrations. R values higher than 60 represent remarkably high specificity in favor of the substrate with one extra methylene group. In exponentially growing E. coli cells (under aerobic growth on glucose), which contain about 300 microM pyruvate and only 3 microM 2-ketobutyrate, AHAS I would produce almost entirely AL and only 1 to 2% AHB. However, isozymes II and III would synthesize AHB (on the pathway to Ile) and AL (on the pathway to valine-leucine) in essentially the ratio required for protein synthesis. The specificity ratio R of any AHAS isozyme was affected neither by the natural feedback inhibitors (Val, Ile) nor by the pH. On the basis of the specificities of the isozymes, the known regulation of AHAS I expression by the catabolite repression system, and the reported behavior of bacterial mutants containing single AHAS isozymes, we suggest that AHAS I enables a bacterium to cope with poor carbon sources, which lead to low endogenous pyruvate concentrations. Although AHAS II and III are well suited to producing the branched-chain amino acid precursors during growth on glucose, they would fail to provide appropriate quantities of AL when the concentration of pyruvate is relatively low.