Use of pleura, azygos vein, pericardium, and muscle flaps in tracheobronchial surgery

Empiric flap coverage for the pneumonectomy stump: How protective is it? A single-institution cohort study

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the impact of empiric tissue flaps on bronchopleural fistula (BPF) rates after pneumonectomy.

METHODS

Patients who underwent pneumonectomy between January 2001 and December 2019 were included. Primary end point was development of BPF. Secondary end points were impact of flap type on BPF rates, time to BPF development, and perioperative mortality.

RESULTS

During the study period, 383 pneumonectomies were performed; 93 were extrapleural pneumonectomy. Most pneumonectomy cases had empiric flap coverage, with greater use in right-sided operations (right: 97%, 154/159; left: 80%, 179/224, P < .001). Empiric flaps harvested included intercostal, latissimus dorsi, serratus anterior, omentum, pectoralis major, pericardial fat/thymus, pericardium, and pleura. BPF occurred in 10.4% of the entire cohort but decreased to 6.6% when extrapleural pneumonectomy cases were excluded; 90% (36/40) of BPFs occurred on the right side (P < .001). Median time to develop BPF was 63 days, and 90-day mortality was greater in patients with BPF (12.5% BPF vs 7.4% non-BPF, P < .0001). Intercostal muscle had the lowest rate of BPF (4.5%), even in right-sided operations (8.7%). In contrast, larger muscle flaps such as latissimus dorsi (21%) and serratus anterior (33%) had greater rates of BPF, but the sample size was small in these cohorts.

CONCLUSIONS

Empiric bronchial stump coverage should be performed in all right pneumonectomy cases due to greater risk of BPF. In our series, intercostal muscle flaps had low BPF rates, even in right-sided operations. Coverage of the left pneumonectomy stump is unnecessary due to low incidence of BPF in these cases.

[Cervicothoracotomy for right upper sleeve lobectomy with carinal resection in the treatment of central lung cancer]

We demonstrated successful treatment of patients with complicated central lung cancer, who underwent right upper sleeve lobectomy with carinal resection. We have used the following options for carinal reconstruction: anastomosis of trachea with the left main bronchus and anastomosis of intermediate bronchus with the left main bronchus (clinical case No. 1) or with trachea (clinical case No. 2). Cervicothoracotomy provided correct N-staging and mobilization of trachea with left main bronchus. This approach provided compliance with oncological principles of surgical treatment of lung cancer and significantly reduced tension of anastomosis. These aspects are important for satisfactory immediate functional and oncological results after right upper sleeve lobectomy with carinal resection.

Novel method for bronchial stump coverage for prevents postpneumonectomy bronchopleural fistula: pedicled thymopericardial fat flap

Background

Bronchopleural fistula (BPF) is a serious complication with high mortality and morbidity that can be seen after lung resections. Although several methods have been described to prevent postoperative BPF it is still unclear which method is the best. In this study, we have used tymopericardial fat flap (TPFF) to cover the bronchial stump in patients after pneumonectomy and aim to show its feasibility and efficacy to prevent BPF.

Methods

Between January 2013 and June 2021, 187 patients with lung cancer underwent pneumonectomy at our institution. Among them, 53 patients underwent bronchial stump coverage with TPFF. In other 134 patients there wasn’t used any coverage method. Patient characteristics, preoperative status, surgical procedures, perioperative course, pathological findings, and long-term prognoses were evaluated retrospectively.

Results

Postoperative BPF was observed in 16 (%8.5) patients. It was observed that TPFF was applied in only 1 of the patients who developed BPF. A statistically significant difference was detected between TPFF-coverage with non-coverage groups in terms of postoperative BPF rates (p = 0.044). Other factors associated with the development of postoperative BPF in univariate analysis were right sided pneumonectomy, and re-operation.

Conclusion

Bronchial stump coverage with TPFF is a feasible and effective method to prevent postpneumonectomy BPF.

Intraoperative methods for wrapping anastomoses after airway reconstruction: a case series

Background

Anastomosis management is the main challenge of airway resection and reconstruction, and postoperative anastomotic complications, including ischemia, stenosis, dehiscence, and separation may lead to severe outcomes and a poor prognosis. The anastomotic buttress is vital in airway reconstruction, but the selection of surgical buttress and reinforcement remains controversial. We aimed to demonstrate and evaluate the buttress options of anastomosis, including their preoperative characteristics, the intraoperative process, and the incidence of postoperative complications to help address the controversy regarding anastomosis management.

Methods

This retrospective study was conducted at a single institution. Patients who underwent airway reconstruction with anastomotic wrapping from Jan. 2019 to Sep. 2021 were enrolled in this study and preoperative characteristics and operational features were collected. All patients were carefully followed up by telephone and outpatient. Their postoperative complications and postoperative status after 6 months were recorded. The surgical procedures and clinical characteristics of the buttress options of anastomosis were assessed.

Results

A total of 62 patients undergoing either cervical tracheal, thoracic tracheal, carinal, or secondary carinal and main bronchus resection and reconstruction were evaluated. The anastomotic buttress used included mediastinal pleural flap (24/62, 38.7%), anterior cervical muscle (14/62, 22.6%), sternocleidomastoid (2/62, 3.2%), thymus flap (12/62, 19.4%), intercostal muscle flap (2/62, 3.2%), biological patch (2/62, 3.2%), prepericardial fat (1/62, 1.6%), thyroid gland (1/62, 1.6%), pectoralis major flap (2/62, 3.2%), and omental flap (2/62, 3.2%). All procedures produced satisfactory results without short-term anastomotic complications. A follow-up for 6 months was conducted and all patients were alive postoperatively. Tracheomalacia stenosis postoperatively occurred in 3 patients and they were subsequently treated with an endotracheal stent. One patient had tumor recurrence 3 months after surgery and received adjuvant chemotherapy.

Conclusions

Various anastomotic wrapping materials are used in airway reconstruction. Different utilizations of buttress are selected according to the anatomic characteristics and the reconstruction method used. This study indicated that appropriate surgical buttresses for wrapping anastomoses are legitimate alternatives to reduce the risk of anastomotic complications.

Prophylactic Bronchial Stump Support With Intrathoracic Muscle Flap Transposition

BACKGROUND

Bronchopleural fistula (BPF) is a dreaded complication of pulmonary resection. For high-risk patients, bronchial stump coverage with vascularized tissue has been recommended. The goal of this study was to report our experience with intrathoracic muscle transposition for bronchial stump coverage.

METHODS

A retrospective review of all patients who underwent intrathoracic muscle flap transposition as a prophylactic measure at our institution between 1990 and 2010 was conducted. Demographics, surgical characteristics, and complication rates were abstracted and analyzed.

RESULTS

A total of 160 patients were identified. The most common lung resections performed were pneumonectomy (n = 69, 43%) and lobectomy (n = 60, 38%). A total of 168 flaps were used where serratus anterior was the most common flap (n = 136, 81%), followed by intercostal (n = 14, 8%), and latissimus dorsi (n = 12, 7%). Ten patients (6%) developed BPF, and empyema occurred in 13 patients (8%). Median survival was 20 months, and operative mortality occurred in 7 patients (4%).

CONCLUSIONS

Reinforcement of the bronchial closure with vascularized muscle is a viable option for potentially decreasing the incidence of BPF in high-risk patients. Further randomized studies are needed to determine the efficacy of this technique for BPF prevention.

Management of Complications After Lung Resection: Prolonged Air Leak and Bronchopleural Fistula

Prolonged air leak or alveolar-pleural fistula is common after lung resection and can usually be managed with continued pleural drainage until resolution. Further management options include blood patch administration, chemical pleurodesis, and 1-way endobronchial valve placement. Bronchopleural fistula is rare but is associated with high mortality, often caused by development of concomitant empyema. Bronchopleural fistula should be confirmed with bronchoscopy, which may allow bronchoscopic intervention; however, transthoracic stump revision or window thoracostomy may be required.

The role of indocyanine green fluorescence in bronchopleural fistula prevention

A 57-year-old woman with non-small-cell lung cancer qualified for pneumonectomy. At the start of the surgery, a pedicled intercostal muscle flap was harvested. Indocyanine green fluorescence revealed ischemia in the distal part of the flap. After pneumonectomy, the ischemic portion of the muscle was removed and the well-perfused proximal part was sutured to the bronchial stump. Reassessment with indocyanine green showed good perfusion of the flap. The postoperative period was uneventful, but follow-up bronchoscopy revealed bronchial suture line dehiscence with the muscle flap separating the bronchial lumen from the postpneumonectomy space. The bronchial stump healed spontaneously by secondary intention.

Bronchus Anastomosis Healing Depending on Type of Neoadjuvant Therapy

BACKGROUND

Preoperative radiotherapy and/or chemotherapy of lung cancer in patients with locally advanced disease is an option in multimodal treatment. Sleeve lobectomy has an important part in decreasing complications and sparing lung function. We present our experience in a large cohort of patients after sleeve lobectomy with or without neoadjuvant treatment and standardized assessment of bronchial anastomotic healing.

METHODS

The data used for this study were collected in a prospective database in our hospital. Anastomotic healing was documented by bronchoscopy on the seventh postoperative day and thereafter only when necessary, using a standardized scoring system. From 2006 to 2017, we performed 501 sleeve lobectomies representing 19% of all lung cancer resections. A total of 365 of patients had no preoperative treatment (73%), 41 had neoadjuvant chemotherapy (8%), and 95 had radiochemotherapy (19%).

RESULTS

Using our scoring system of the bronchial anastomosis from 1 (excellent) to 5 (insufficient), we found the anastomosis was worse than grade 2 after no treatment, chemotherapy, or radiochemotherapy in 17%, 10%, and 30%, respectively (P = .002). The rate of anastomotic insufficiency was equally low after no pretreatment and chemotherapy (2.7% and 2.4%) and rose to 10.4% after radiotherapy (P = .002). Similarly, the risk for pulmonary complications was higher after radiochemotherapy (39%) compared with no pretreatment (29%) or chemotherapy (27%), respectively (P = .382).

CONCLUSIONS

Neoadjuvant radiotherapy is associated with worse wound healing of the anastomosis after sleeve lobectomy in lung cancer. There seems to be a higher risk for anastomotic insufficiency and complications.

[Use of pedicled dorsal muscle flap combined with negative pressure therapy in the management of postpneumonectomy septic complications]

SUBJECT

The objective of this study is to report our experience in the management of septic complications arising from pulmonary resection surgery by placing a pedicled upper back muscle flap associated with dressings by therapy. Negative pressure in all patients supported in our center from November 2015 to March 2018.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Characteristics of fourteen patients with a pedicled dorsal muscle flap in the context of chronic empyema associated with bronchopulmonary fistula were identified. Flap placement time, complications, and success rate were assessed.

RESULTS

The median flap placement after completion of the open window thoracostomy was 19days [3-65]. The median healing time was 3months. Healing was definitively achieved in 12 patients, a success rate of 86%.

CONCLUSION

Through this series we have shown that our coverage by pneumonectomy cavity coverage with an early dorsal muscle flap associated with negative pressure therapy, has a similar mortality rate and success rate to those found in the literature.

Management of Postpneumonectomy Bronchopleural Fistula: From Thoracoplasty to Transsternal Closure

Development of postpneumonectomy empyema with bronchopleural fistula is a life-threatening condition that requires prompt action. Although measures should be taken to prevent bronchopleural fistula at time of pneumonectomy, many patients experience this complication. Management focuses on drainage of the pleural space, control of the pleural infection including repair of the bronchopleural fistula, and obliteration of the residual pleural cavity. Multiple techniques and procedures have been developed over time to achieve these goals. Knowledge of the diverse therapeutic options is important to select the optimal treatment for these complex patients.

[The possibilities for the prevention of incompetent tracheorrhaphy]

The present review of the literature is focused on the methods designed for the prevention of incompetent tracheorrhaphy. The main cause that dictates the necessity of strengthening the sutures is the risk of the development of the complications during the postoperative period following the surgical interventions. The incompetence of the tracheal anastomoses is known to occur in 3.6-26.3% of the patients which leads to the development of such complications as neck phlegmon, mediastinitis, and pleural empyema. The mortality rate amounts to 18.2%. The authors describe the methods employed for the prevention of incompetent tracheorrhaphy following the circular resections and suturing of the linear traumatic defects. The advantages and disadvantages of individual methods are discussed.

Management Strategies for Complex Bronchopleural Fistula

The management of complex bronchopleural fistula remains a major therapeutic challenge for the thoracic surgeon. Although the incidence of bronchopleural fistula following lung resection has decreased in recent years to 1% to 2%, when it occurs, it is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Using illustrative cases, the epidemiology and pathophysiology of bronchopleural fistula are reviewed and operative strategies are discussed. Algorithms for the diagnosis and treatment are suggested on the basis of cases described in the literature. The best way to prevent a fistula is to rigorously follow the surgical techniques described, with minimal devascularization of the bronchus and prophylactic coverage of the stump in high-risk patients. Successful management of a fistula is combined with treatment of the associated empyema cavity. Definitive repair should be accomplished expeditiously, minimizing the number of procedures performed. When treatment is protracted, secondary complications are more likely and survival is adversely affected. The first step should be control of active infection and adequate drainage of the hemithorax, followed by timely repair of the bronchopleural fistula when possible and reinforcement of the stump with vascularized tissue. If a residual cavity is present it must also be obliterated with a pedicled muscle flap.

Techniques of protection and revascularization of the bronchial anastomosis

Airway anastomosis has been traditionally considered at risk for the onset of complications, particularly dehiscence with consequent infection and erosion in the adjacent vessels. Although the modifications and improvements of the surgical technique has contributed to reduce the incidence of complications, the protection and revascularization of the anastomotic site is still considered mandatory at many centers Many techniques have been proposed for encircling the bronchial anastomosis.

Repair of postpneumonectomy bronchopleural fistula using pedicled pericardial flap supported by fibrin glue

Effective closure of the postpneumonectomy bronchopleural fistula (PBF) with the use of different techniques still remains a challenge for thoracic surgeons. The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of modified method of PBF closure using pedicled pericardial flap (PPF) supported by fibrin glue (FG). The efficacy of the late PBF closure with the use of two surgical methods was compared. In 10 patients, the edges of the PBF were covered with FG and PPF. In the second group of nine patients, myoplasty was used to close the bronchial fistula. Postsurgical follow-up was for 1 year. In the first group, the healing of the fistula was achieved in 100% of the cases, whereas in the second, myoplasty group, healing was achieved in only 66·67% of the cases. The number of complications was similar in both groups. Pericardial flap supported by fibrin glue can be an effective method adjunctive to the treatment of PBF in selected patients.

Pericardial flap: an effective method of surgical repair of late post-pneumonectomy fistula

BACKGROUND

We report our experience with the surgical closure of late post-pneumonectomy bronchopleural fistula (PBF) using our own method of coverage of the bronchial stump: Pedicled pericardial flap in combination with fibrin glue.

METHODS

We reviewed the surgical results of 33 patients who underwent surgical closure of PBF by thoracotomy access using three methods: Myoplasty (MYO)-12, omentoplasty (OMT)-10, and pedicled pericardial flap (PPF) with fibrin glue-11. Post-operative follow up was six months.

RESULTS

The patients' demography was comparable among the groups. The diameter of the fistulas ranged from 5 mm to total dehiscence. The mean time of the fistula manifestation (in weeks) was 21.5 in the MYO group, 19.50 in the OMT, and 20.1 in the PPF group. The shortest period of hospital drainage of the pleural space was noted in the PPF group. Healing of the fistula was obtained in 66.67% in the MYO group, 80% in the OMT, and 100% in the PPF group. The number of complications was similar in all groups. The hospitalization time was significantly shorter in the PPF group (13.00 d) versus the MYO group (19.58 d) and the OMT (20.01 d). Overall mortality rate was 18.18%; 33.33% of the patients in the MYO group and 20% in the OMT group died. There were no hospital deaths in the PPF group.

CONCLUSION

Pericardial flap supported by fibrin glue can be an effective method adjunctive to the treatment of postpneumonectomy PBF in selected patients. Compared with other methods of bronchial stump coverage (omentopasty and myoplasty), this one showed a higher percentage of healing of the fistulas and shorter duration of hospital drainage and hospitalization.

Bronchial stump coverage with fibrin glue-coated collagen fleece in lung cancer patients who underwent pneumonectomy

PURPOSE

Bronchopleural fistula (BPF) is a serious complication following pneumonectomy in lung cancer patients. The aim of this retrospective study is to investigate the efficacy of bronchial stump reinforcement with a collagen fleece coated with fibrin glue(TachoComb®).

METHODS

The bronchial stumps of 43 lung cancer patients who underwent pneumonectomy between January 1998 and January 2003 were covered with pericardial fat pad.From February 2003 to the March 2011, we used TachoComb to cover the bronchial stumps of all lung cancer patients undergoing pneumonectomy (20 cases). Several preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative variables were recorded retrospectively.

RESULTS

Univariate analysis of comorbidities and risk factors did not show any significant differences between the two groups except for neoadjuvant chemotherapy. Postpneumonectomy BPF occurred in three of the 43 (7%) patients who had pericardial fat pad coverage and in none of the patients treated by TachoComb.

CONCLUSION

Reinforcement of the bronchial stump with TachoComb is a simple procedure, comparable to coverage with viable tissue, and should be considered in the prevention of postpneumonectomy BPF.

Bronchial Stump Coverage and Postpneumonectomy Bronchopleural Fistula

To prevent postpneumonectomy bronchopleural fistula, coverage of the bronchial stump is recommended, especially for patients treated with neoadjuvant and adjuvant chemotherapy or radiochemotherapy. We compared outcomes after proximal pericardial fat pad coverage and coverage with pleura and surrounding tissues, by retrospective analysis of the records of 243 patients. Postpneumonectomy bronchopleural fistula occurred in 7/143 (4.9%) patients who had pericardial fat pad coverage, and in 6/100 (6.0%) treated by pleural covering. Bronchopleural fistula occurred in 11 patients within 21 days, in one after 2 months, and one after 6 months. Univariate analysis of comorbidities and risk factors did not show any significant differences between the groups. Advanced T stage and carcinomatous lymphangiosis at the resection margin were associated with a higher risk of bronchopleural fistula development, independent of the technique. Reinforcement of the bronchial stump by proximal pericardial fat pad coverage appears to be safe and feasible. It is comparable to coverage with pleura and surrounding tissues.

[Isolated lymph node metastasis in pericardial fat flap after bronchial stump coverage]

The occurrence of bronchopleural fistulas is a serious complication after pneumonectomy because of lung cancer and additional bronchial stump coverage within right-sided and left-sided pneumonectomy therefore constitutes the operative standard. This is a case report on the early diagnosis of a lymph node metastasis within the pedicled pericardial fat flap used for bronchial stump coverage. Primary resection of the left lung was carried out 8 months previously because of cancer. Early diagnosis was possible using FDG-PET/CT in the post-operative treatment. The recurrence was successfully treated by en bloc resection and adjuvant radiation.

Low incidence of bronchopleural fistula after pneumonectomy for lung cancer

Bronchopleural fistula (BPF) after pneumonectomy for NSCLC remains a highly morbid complication. We examined possible factors including the surgical techniques associated with BPF development. From 221 pneumonectomies for NSCLC, bronchial stump closure was mechanically performed in 192 patients and manually in the remaining 29. In all right-sided pneumonectomies mechanical closure was performed with associated stump coverage. In 114/130 left-sided procedures where mechanical closure was selected, bronchial stump remained uncovered. In the remaining 16 left-sided cases where manual stump closure was selectively performed, the stump was covered utilizing various tissues. Risk factors were classified into preoperative, intra-operative and postoperative. Five patients (2.3%) developed BPF. Univariate analysis revealed peri-operative transfusion, respiratory infection at the time of presentation, neoadjuvant therapy, right-sided pneumonectomy, manual type of bronchial closure, days of postoperative hospitalization and mechanical ventilation as significant risk factors for BPF development. Multivariate analysis followed revealing preoperative respiratory infection and right pneumonectomy as the only independent risk factors. In our series, a selected stump coverage policy showed a low incidence of BPF development. Mechanical stapling was superior to manual closure, although not as an independent factor. Early recognition of possible risk factors associated with fistula development is of paramount importance.

Comparison of different bronchial closure techniques following pneumonectomy in dogs

The comparison of the histologic healing and bronchopleural fistula (BPF) complications encountered with three different BS closure techniques (manual suture, stapler and manual suture plus tissue flab) after pneumonectomy in dogs was investigated for a one-month period. The dogs were separated into two groups: group I (GI) (n = 9) and group II (GII) (n = 9). Right and left pneumonectomies were performed on the animals in GI and GII, respectively. Each group was further divided into three subgroups according to BS closure technique: subgroup I (SGI) (n = 3), manual suture; subgroup II (SGII) (n = 3), stapler; and subgroup III (SGIII) (n = 3), manual suture plus tissue flab. The dogs were sacrificed after one month of observation, and the bronchial stumps were removed for histological examination. The complications observed during a one-month period following pneumonectomy in nine dogs (n = 9) were: BPF (n = 5), peri-operative cardiac arrest (n = 1), post-operative respiratory arrest (n = 1), post-operative cardiac failure (n = 1) and cardio-pulmonary failure (n = 1). Histological healing was classified as complete or incomplete healing. Histological healing and BPF complications in the subgroups were analyzed statistically. There was no significant difference in histological healing between SGI and SGIII (p = 1.00; p > 0.05), nor between SGII and SGIII (p = 1.00; p > 0.05). Similarly, no significant difference was observed between the subgroups in terms of BPF (p = 0.945; p > 0.05). The results of the statistical analysis indicated that manual suture, stapler or manual suture plus tissue flab could be alternative methods for BS closure following pneumonectomy in dogs.

Revascularization of trachea in lung and tracheal transplantation

Ischemia is the primary risk factor for airway complications in double lung transplantation using tracheal anastomosis and in tracheal transplantation. Many treatment options as to revascularization for the trachea were herein described and reviewed. They include direct revascularization (using a conduit such as artery or vein), revascularization with tissue wrapping (using omentum, muscle, internal thoracic artery pedicle, pleura, or pericardial fat pad), and with drug administration (using corticosteroid hormone, prostaglandin, or angiogenic factor). As there are few organized reports including new information on revascularization for the trachea these days, this review article would help thoracic surgeons who get engaged transplantation.

Bronchial stump buttressing with an intercostal muscle flap in diabetic patients

BACKGROUND

The development of a bronchopleural fistula (BPF) is a devastating complication after lung resection. Diabetic patients exhibit a high propensity for postpneumonectomy complications, particularly BPF. This study evaluated the use of an intercostal muscle flap to reinforce the bronchus in high-risk diabetic patients after pneumonectomy.

METHODS

From February 2002 to December 2005, 70 patients with established diabetes mellitus undergoing pneumonectomy were prospectively enrolled in this study. Patients were randomized to have their bronchial stump reinforced with an intercostal muscle flap or to a conventional resection. A univariable statistical analysis was performed to assess differences in perioperative variables and in outcomes of interest. A multivariable logistic regression analysis was also performed to evaluate the association of BPF development with a number of confounding variables, including intercostal muscle flap usage.

RESULTS

Randomization ensured that groups were equally distributed. Mean follow-up was 18 +/- 9.2 months. The group that received an intercostal muscle flap had a lower incidence of BPF development (0% versus 8.8%; p = 0.02) and of empyema (0% versus 7.4%; p = 0.05) compared with the group that received conventional pneumonectomy.

CONCLUSIONS

The low incidence of BPF and empyema observed in patients who received an intercostal muscle flap suggest that bronchial stump reinforcement with this technique is a highly effective method for the prevention of BPF in high-risk diabetic patients.

Postpneumonectomy and Postlobectomy Empyema

Although similar strategies are used in the management of PPE and PLE, these conditions need to be viewed as two separate entities. For the purpose of devising the appropriate management strategy, PPE should be divided into early and late, with and without mediastinal induration and extensive pleural space contamination. If at all possible, PLE should be managed as a postpneumonic empyema with prolonged chest tube drainage. The key to these conditions is prevention.

Reconstitution of Blood Supply of the Denuded Bronchial Stump

BACKGROUND

Our aim was to study the process of microcirculatory reconstitution in the bronchial stump after pneumonectomy.

METHODS

Eighteen juvenile pigs (median weight 40.6 kg) were randomly assigned to three groups. In all animals left pneumonectomy was performed and the stapled bronchial stump (median length 3.8 cm) carefully denuded. Group I animals received coverage of the stump by intercostal flap. In group II, the stump was covered with TachoComb, an impermeable hemostatic fleece; and group III served as a control without any coverage of the stump. Animals were sacrificed at day 14 after surgery. Vascular density was evaluated in serial histologic sections at multiple levels stained with CD-31 antibody. One-way analysis of variance and the Wilcoxon test were used for data analysis.

RESULTS

At autopsy, stumps of group III animals were totally covered by adjacent mediastinal structures. In group I, intercostal flaps were viable and completely healed to the bronchial stumps. There were no signs of infection or stump insufficiency in these groups. In all group II animals, empyema developed, and stumps were found necrotic at macroscopic and histologic evaluation. Statistical analysis revealed significantly lower vascular density of mature vessels in the area of the bronchial stump in group II compared with both other groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Reconstitution of microcirculation of the denuded bronchial stump after pneumonectomy takes place in a centripetal way from adjacent viable tissue. Hence, the purpose of covering the bronchial stump is the improvement of blood supply rather than mechanical reinforcement.

Bronchial Stump Coverage With a Pedicled Pericardial Flap: An Effective Method for Prevention of Postpneumonectomy Bronchopleural Fistula

BACKGROUND

Bronchopleural fistula is a serious complication after pneumonectomy. The aim of this retrospective study was to investigate the efficacy of bronchial stump reinforcement with a pedicled flap of whole pericardium.

METHODS

The bronchial stump of 93 consecutive patients who underwent pneumonectomy between July 1988 and March 2003 was covered with a pedicled pericardial flap. Pneumonectomy was performed for primary lung cancer in 89.2% of patients. The study patients received concomitant extensive mediastinal lymphadenectomy, resection of adjacent structures (aorta, vena cava, thoracic wall), and neoadjuvant or planned adjuvant chemotherapy or radiotherapy, or both. Operative and perioperative complications were recorded, and patients were followed up for a mean of 15 +/- 21.2 months (range, 9 to 126).

RESULTS

Perioperative mortality was 4.3% (n = 4; pulmonary embolism, sepsis, cardiac arrest, and sudden death in 1 patient each). Perioperative complications occurred in 2 patients: renal failure and hemiplegia in 1 patient and cardiac tamponade in 1 patient. The latter complication, caused by tight reconstruction of the pericardium, was directly related to the applied method and required reoperation. No evidence of postpneumonectomy bronchopleural fistula was observed perioperatively and during the whole follow-up. One-year and 2-year survival was 65.7% and 44.8%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Bronchial stump reinforcement with a pericardial flap is a highly effective method for preventing postpneumonectomy bronchopleural fistula in selected patients.

Closure of large intrathoracic airway defects using extrathoracic muscle flaps

BACKGROUND

Prospective assessment of pedicled extrathoracic muscle flaps for the closure of large intrathoracic airway defects after noncircumferential resection in situations where an end-to-end reconstruction seemed risky (defects of > 4-cm length, desmoplastic reactions after previous infection or radiochemotherapy).

METHODS

From 1996 to 2001, 13 intrathoracic muscle transpositions (6 latissimus dorsi and 7 serratus anterior muscle flaps) were performed to close defects of the intrathoracic airways after noncircumferential resection for tumor (n = 5), large tracheoesophageal fistula (n = 2), delayed tracheal injury (n = 1) and bronchopleural fistula (n = 5). In 2 patients, the extent of the tracheal defect required reinforcement of the reconstruction by use of a rib segment embedded into the muscle flap followed by temporary tracheal stenting. Patient follow-up was by clinical examination bronchoscopy and biopsy, pulmonary function tests, and dynamic virtual bronchoscopy by computed tomographic (CT) scan during inspiration and expiration.

RESULTS

The airway defects ranged from 2 x 1 cm to 8 x 4 cm and involved up to 50% of the airway circumference. They were all successfully closed using muscle flaps with no mortality and all patients were extubated within 24 hours. Bronchoscopy revealed epithelialization of the reconstructions without dehiscence, stenosis, or recurrence of fistulas. The flow-volume loop was preserved in all patients and dynamic virtual bronchoscopy revealed no significant difference in the endoluminal cross surface areas of the airway between inspiration and expiration above (45 +/- 21 mm(2)), at the site (76 +/- 23 mm(2)) and below the reconstruction (65 +/- 40 mm(2)).

CONCLUSIONS

Intrathoracic airway defects of up to 50% of the circumference may be repaired using extrathoracic muscle flaps when an end-to-end reconstruction is not feasible.

Protection of right pneumonectomy bronchial sutures with a pedicled thymus flap

A pedicled flap obtained by mobilizing the right lobe of the thymus was used to protect bronchial sutures in 29 consecutive patients undergoing a right pneumonectomy and in 4 additional patients. Fourteen patients had received preoperative chemotherapy with or without radiotherapy. The flap procedure was, in general, easy to do, required an average time of 20.4 minutes, and did not cause added operative morbidity. Postoperative magnetic resonance imaging, performed in 21 of the 29 patients who had pneumonectomy, showed a viable flap in every instance. One bronchopleural fistula occurred in a pneumonectomy patient after induction chemotherapy plus radiotherapy in a patient in the pneumonectomy group in whom adult respiratory distress syndrome developed postoperatively and who required prolonged mechanical ventilation.

Management of the irradiated bronchus after lobectomy for lung cancer

BACKGROUND

Radiation effects make operative dissection difficult, impair subsequent healing, and increase morbidity. This study evaluates tissue reinforcement of the irradiated bronchus as a modality to reduce morbidity after lobectomy for lung cancer.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed all patients who had preoperative radiotherapy before lobectomy for lung cancer between May 1977 and June 2000.

RESULTS

There were 56 patients (33 men and 23 women) who ranged in age from 42 to 80 years (median, 59 years). Bronchial stump reinforcement included no coverage in 24 patients (42.8%), mediastinal tissue (parietal pleura, pericardial fat, or azygos vein) in 16 (28.6%), and muscle (serratus anterior) in 16 (28.6%). Median preoperative radiation dose was 4,600 cGy (range, 3,000 to 9,810 cGy) and did not differ between the groups. There were three deaths (13%) in the no coverage group, one (6%) in the mediastinal tissue group, and one (6%) in the muscle group (NS). Pulmonary complication rate was 67% in the no coverage group, 44% in the mediastinal group, and 25% in the muscle group (p = 0.03). Median duration of chest tube drainage was 8 days in the no coverage group, 6 days in the mediastinal group, and 5 days in the muscle group (p = 0.006). Median hospital stay was 13 days in the no coverage group, 9 days in the mediastinal group, and 7 days in the muscle group (p = 0.02). Patients in the muscle group had reduced hospital stay, duration of chest tube drainage, and pulmonary complications compared with the other two groups (p < 0.05). Subjectively, presence and magnitude of postoperative pain, range of motion, and strength of the upper extremity of the muscle flap side were not different between the groups (p = NS). Follow-up was complete and ranged from 4 to 147 months (median, 17 months).

CONCLUSIONS

Tissue reinforcement of the irradiated bronchus after lobectomy reduces postoperative morbidity and hospitalization. Transposition muscle flap may be preferred.

Histological and immunohistochemical study of the bronchial stump with flap coverage in an animal model

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of our study was to evaluate the healing process of the bronchial stump after pneumonectomy reinforced with different pedicled flaps in an animal model. The specimens were analyzed by means of histology and immunohistochemistry.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We have considered 45 New Zealand White male rabbits that underwent a left pneumonectomy under general anesthesia. Nine animals had no bronchial coverage and represented the controls. The other 36 rabbits were divided into three groups of 12 and had bronchial coverage with either diaphragmatic, intercostal or pericardial flaps. The histological examinations were performed on the animals sacrificed 7, 14 and 30 days after surgery. Immunohistochemical analyses were done on the specimens on postoperative day 7 and 14. On postoperative day 7, the specimens were examined for expression of proliferating cell nuclear antibody (PCNA) expression. On postoperative day 14, neoangiogenesis was measured by CD31 expression. The measurements of antibody expression were done with a computer-assisted morphometric count and analyzed with the t test.

RESULTS

On postoperative day 14, standard histology showed more evident neoangiogenesis in the bronchial stump specimens covered with intercostal and diaphragmatic flaps compared to pericardial flaps and controls. The immunohistochemical evaluation of PCNA by morphometric computer-assisted analysis did not show any statistically significant differences among the groups. The CD31 morphometric count revealed a higher and statistically significant antibody expression in muscular flaps compared to pericardial flaps and controls.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study showed that bronchial coverage with a pedicled muscular flaps promotes the production of new vessels and gives the possibilities to optimize the healing process of a bronchial stump after pneumonectomy.

Management of empyema after lung resections (pneumonectomy/lobectomy)

Empyemas that complicate lung resection are an uncommon but morbid and too-often deadly sequela, particularly after pneumonectomy. Knowledge of the conditions that place patients at high risk for this complication and of the well-established principles of bronchial stump closure are crucial to preventing empyemas. One should be familiar with the various options of stump reinforcement and should use them aggressively, particularly in high-risk situations. Prompt recognition of this complication demands immediate intervention and drainage of the empyema space to minimize the risks of aspiration to the remaining lung. The principles that guide the management of these empyemas are those established by Clagett and Geraci 40 years ago [37]. Modern variations of these guidelines have allowed improved results and a more timely recovery and should be considered in low-risk patients.

Prediction of early bronchopleural fistula after pneumonectomy: a multivariate analysis

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to determine independent risk factors for early bronchopleural fistula (BPF) after pneumonectomy and to assess the efficacy of bronchial coverage in preventing this complication.

METHODS

We reviewed 242 consecutive patients undergoing pneumonectomy for lung cancer. The bronchial stump was covered with autologous tissue in 178 patients (74%). Perioperative data were recorded to identify risk factors of BPF by univariate and multivariate analyses.

RESULTS

Overall morbidity and mortality rates were 59% and 5.4%, respectively. The incidence of BPF was 5.4%. By univariate analysis, patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD; p = 0.017), hyperglycemia (p = 0.003), hypoalbuminemia (p = 0.017), previous steroid therapy (p < 0.001), poor predicted postpneumonectomy forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1; p = 0.012), long bronchial stumps (p < 0.001), and mechanical ventilation (p = 0.015), were related with higher risk of BPF. In the multiple logistic regression model, the independent risk factors of BPF were the bronchial stump coverage and length, side of pneumonectomy, predicted postpneumonectomy FEV1, COPD, and mechanical ventilation.

CONCLUSIONS

Bronchial stump coverage is highly recommended in all cases to minimize the risks of BPF. A shorter length of the bronchial stump and early extubation may prevent the development of BPF. Careful attention must be paid to those patients with COPD and poor predicted postpneumonectomy FEV1.

Morbidity and mortality after neoadjuvant therapy for lung cancer: the risks of right pneumonectomy

BACKGROUND

The risks of complications in patients undergoing thoracotomy after neoadjuvant therapy for nonsmall cell lung cancer remain controversial. We reviewed our experience to define it further.

METHODS

All patients undergoing thoracotomy after induction chemotherapy from 1993 through 1999 were reviewed. Univariate and multivariate methods for logistic regression model were used to identify predictors of adverse events.

RESULTS

Induction chemotherapy included mitomycin, vinblastine, and cisplatin (179 patients), carboplatin and paclitaxel (152 patients), and other combinations (139 patients). Eighty-five patients (18%) received preoperative radiation. Operations were pneumonectomy (97 patients), lobectomy (297 patients), lesser resection (18 patients), and exploration only (58 patients). Total mortality was 7 of 297 (2.4%) and 11 of 97 (11.3%) for all lobectomies and pneumonectomies, respectively, but mortality was 11 of 46 (23.9%) for right pneumonectomy. Complications developed in 179 patients (38%). By multiple regression analysis, right pneumonectomy (p = 0.02), blood loss (p = 0.01), and forced expiratory volume in one second (percent predicted) (p = 0.01) predicted complications. No factor emerged to explain this high right pneumonectomy mortality rate.

CONCLUSIONS

Pulmonary resection after neoadjuvant therapy is associated with acceptable overall morbidity and mortality. However, right pneumonectomy is associated with a significantly increased risk and should be performed only in selected patients.

Management of bronchopleural fistula after lobectomy

Bronchopleural fistula after lobectomy is fortunately a rare complication. In years past, this complication was encountered far more frequently. However, the morbidity associated with this complication is still significant. Bronchopleural fistulas develop in patients who are at increased risk of surgical morbidity because of their concomitant medical problems or as a result of chemotherapy for lung cancer or immunosuppression in transplant patients. These patients often present in a moribund, septic state, making their treatment even more difficult. Nevertheless, evaluation and management of these patients should proceed in a logical stepwise fashion. Evaluation of the patient with a bronchopleural fistula should proceed in a logical, stepwise manner form diagnosis to pulmonary rehabilitation.

Cardiac dislocation after extended pneumonectomy with pericardioplasty

Two cases of cardiac dislocation occurred after intrapericardial right pneumonectomy with extended pericardiectomy and radical nodal dissection in spite of proper reconstruction with a pericardial fat flap in one case and with a Gore-tex prosthesis in the other. In the case of major pericardial excision resulting in extensive mobilisation of the SVC a complete reconstruction of pericardium and mediastinal pleura is recommended in order to prevent cardiac dislocation.

Impact of different coverage techniques on incidence of postpneumonectomy stump fistula

OBJECTIVE

Postpneumonectomy bronchial stump fistula (PBSF) is a serious complication with a reported incidence between 0 and 12%. The aim of this retrospective study was to investigate the effectiveness of different coverage techniques of the bronchial stump applied in a consecutive series of pneumonectomies in avoiding this particular problem.

METHODS

Between 1/87 and 10/97, 129 patients (90 male, 39 female, mean age 57.8 years, range: 15-78 years) underwent pneumonectomy by one surgeon (W.K.). In 14 patients, additional resection procedures were performed (aorta n = 6, vena cava n = 5, thoracic wall n = 3). In all patients with malignancies (n = 123), mediastinal lymphadenectomy was routinely added to the procedure. Bronchial stump closure was performed by means of stapling devices in all patients. Coverage of the bronchial stump was performed with a generous pedicled pericardial flap and concomitant reconstruction of the pericardium with Vicryl mesh (n = 50), with a portion of the posterior pericardium (n = 16), with the azygos vein (n = 12), with surrounding mediastinal tissue (n = 25), with pleura (n = 16), or with intercostal muscle flap (n = 3); no coverage at all was performed in seven patients. In all patients with high risk for development of PBSF, i.e. patients who received any form of neoadjuvant therapy or had extended resections, the pericardial flap technique was used.

RESULTS

Perioperative mortality was 5.4% (n = 7) and five patients (3.9%) experienced significant perioperative complications, with one of them directly related to the method of bronchial stump coverage (cardiac tamponade due to the use of a too small Vicryl mesh for reconstruction of the pericardium). Follow-up was 96.1% complete (five patients were lost to follow-up). Fourty-seven patients (36.4%) died late after operation (mean 19+/-13 months, median 17 months), mainly due to recurrence of their underlying malignant disease. PBSF occurred in one patient only (0.8%), 2 weeks after operation (coverage with pleura). No PBSF was seen in the long term follow-up period.

CONCLUSION

Coverage of the bronchial stump contributes to a low incidence of PBSF. In view of the fact, that this serious complication was completely avoided in the pericardial flap group (used in patients with expected higher risk for PBSF), this particular technique seems to offer the best results.