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Ravikumar D, Ramani P, Gayathri R. Genotypic diversity of Streptococcus mutans in children with and without early childhood caries- A systematic review. J Oral Biol Craniofac Res 2021; 11:308-312. [PMID: 33816099 PMCID: PMC8010460 DOI: 10.1016/j.jobcr.2021.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Revised: 02/11/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Genotypic diversity and polymorphism of Streptococcus mutans remain as a topic of interest, as this provides a satisfactory explanation for the contrasting caries status in people harboring Sterptococcus mutans. This systematic review aimed to analyze and appraise Genomic diversity of Streptococcus mutans and its relationship in Early Childhood Caries. METHODS A literature search was conducted until August 2020 using PubMed, Cochrane central, SIGLE using search keywords and MeSH headings include "Early Childhood caries", "Streptococcus mutans" and "Genotypic diversity". Apart from the aforementioned electric search, manual search was also done. The retrieved papers were assessed by three review authors and the disagreements were discussed and the final decision was made by consensus. Qualities of the included studies were assessed and data were extracted for analysis. RESULTS A total of 4081 papers were retrieved for screening after the removal of duplicate articles. Among the retrieved studies, 4074 papers did not satisfy the study inclusion criteria. Finally, those 7 papers which fulfilled all the inclusion criteria were selected and reviewed systematically. CONCLUSION Genetic polymorphism and genetic mutation exist in S.mutans strain and the missense mutation varies between children with and without Early Childhood caries. The number of genotypes of S.mutans varies between caries active and caries-free children. Due to the lack of adequate studies on gene mutations for direct comparison, further studies are needed to evaluate these gene mutation and its diversities to draw a definitive conclusion.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Pratibha Ramani
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology, Saveetha Dental College, Saveetha University, Chennai, India
| | - R. Gayathri
- Department of Biochemistry, Saveetha Dental College, Saveetha University, Chennai, India
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Valdez RMA, Duque C, Caiaffa KS, Dos Santos VR, Loesch MLDA, Colombo NH, Arthur RA, Negrini TDC, Boriollo MFG, Delbem ACB. Genotypic diversity and phenotypic traits of Streptococcus mutans isolates and their relation to severity of early childhood caries. BMC Oral Health 2017; 17:115. [PMID: 28709424 PMCID: PMC5512815 DOI: 10.1186/s12903-017-0406-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2017] [Accepted: 07/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Early childhood caries (ECC) is an aggressive condition that can affect teeth of young children. This study aimed to evaluate genotypic diversity and phenotypic traits of S. mutans isolated from dental biofilms of children with different caries status in comparison with caries free (CF) children. METHODS Streptococcus mutans strains were isolated from supragingival biofilm samples of CF, ECC and severe-ECC (S-ECC) children and genotyped by arbitrary-primer polymerase chain reaction - AP-PCR. S. mutans genotypes were tested for their ability to reduce the suspension pH through glycolysis, to tolerate extreme acid challenge and by their ability to form biofilm. Response variables were analyzed by ANOVA/Tukey or Kruskal-Wallis/Mann-Whitney tests at a 5% of significance. RESULTS There was an increase in the prevalence of Streptococcus mutans in biofilms with the severity of dental caries. No differences in genotypic diversity and in acidogenicity of genotypes were found among CF, ECC and S-ECC children. S mutans strains with genotypes more characteristic for ECC and S-ECC children formed more biofilms than those identified in CF children. The strains isolated from S-ECC children were highly acid tolerant. CONCLUSION Although S. mutans genotypic diversity was similar among the groups of children, phenotypic traits of S. mutans, especially the acid tolerance response, could explain the severity of early childhood caries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Remberto Marcelo Argandoña Valdez
- Universidad Mayor de San Andrés (UMSA), Foundation Pro-Joven, La Paz, La Paz, Bolivia. .,Department of Pediatric Dentistry and Public Health, São Paulo State University (UNESP), School of Dentistry, Araçatuba, R. José Bonifácio, 1193, Araçatuba, SP, CEP: 16015-050, Brazil.
| | - Cristiane Duque
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry and Public Health, São Paulo State University (UNESP), School of Dentistry, Araçatuba, R. José Bonifácio, 1193, Araçatuba, SP, CEP: 16015-050, Brazil.
| | - Karina Sampaio Caiaffa
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry and Public Health, São Paulo State University (UNESP), School of Dentistry, Araçatuba, R. José Bonifácio, 1193, Araçatuba, SP, CEP: 16015-050, Brazil
| | - Vanessa Rodrigues Dos Santos
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry and Public Health, São Paulo State University (UNESP), School of Dentistry, Araçatuba, R. José Bonifácio, 1193, Araçatuba, SP, CEP: 16015-050, Brazil
| | - Maria Luiza de Aguiar Loesch
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry and Public Health, São Paulo State University (UNESP), School of Dentistry, Araçatuba, R. José Bonifácio, 1193, Araçatuba, SP, CEP: 16015-050, Brazil
| | - Natalia Helena Colombo
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry and Public Health, São Paulo State University (UNESP), School of Dentistry, Araçatuba, R. José Bonifácio, 1193, Araçatuba, SP, CEP: 16015-050, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo Alex Arthur
- Department of Preventive Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Thais de Cássia Negrini
- Department of Preventive Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Fabiano Gomes Boriollo
- Department of Oral Diagnostic, Area of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), School of Dentistry, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil.,Department of Research and Postgraduate Studies, Area of Pharmacogenetics and Molecular Biology, University of Alfenas (UNIFENAS), Medicine School, Alfenas, MG, Brazil
| | - Alberto Carlos Botazzo Delbem
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry and Public Health, São Paulo State University (UNESP), School of Dentistry, Araçatuba, R. José Bonifácio, 1193, Araçatuba, SP, CEP: 16015-050, Brazil
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Lapirattanakul J, Nakano K. Mother-to-child transmission of mutans streptococci. Future Microbiol 2015; 9:807-23. [PMID: 25046526 DOI: 10.2217/fmb.14.37] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutans streptococci (MS) are the major group of pathogens implicated in dental caries. Like other infectious diseases, transmission of the causative microorganisms is the initial and essential step that should be understood relative to disease control and prevention. This review summarizes current knowledge regarding MS transmission, especially from mothers to their children. Included are methods used to study transmission, sources of MS, initial acquisition, factors concerning transmission and prevention of transmission. Information accumulated over many decades showed the involvement of MS transmission in the pathogenesis of caries, hence several preventive measurements have been proposed. Nevertheless, some essential aspects remain to be elucidated for more benefits of practical application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinthana Lapirattanakul
- Department of Oral Microbiology, Faculty of Dentistry, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
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Cheon K, Moser SA, Wiener HW, Whiddon J, Momeni SS, Ruby JD, Cutter GR, Childers NK. Characteristics of Streptococcus mutans genotypes and dental caries in children. Eur J Oral Sci 2013; 121:148-55. [PMID: 23659236 DOI: 10.1111/eos.12044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
This longitudinal cohort study evaluated the diversity, commonality, and stability of Streptococcus mutans genotypes associated with dental caries history. Sixty-seven 5- and 6-yr-old children, considered as being at high caries risk, had plaque collected from baseline through 36 months for S. mutans isolation and genotyping using repetitive extragenic palindromic-PCR (4,392 total isolates). Decayed, missing, or filled surfaces (dmfs (primary teeth)/DMFS (secondary teeth)) for each child were recorded at baseline. At baseline, 18 distinct genotypes were found among 911 S. mutans isolates from 67 children (diversity), and 13 genotypes were shared by at least two children (commonality). The number of genotypes per individual was positively associated with the proportion of decayed surfaces (p-ds) at baseline. Twenty-four of the 39 children who were available at follow-up visits maintained a predominant genotype for the follow-up periods (stability) and this was negatively associated with the p-ds. The observed diversity, commonality, and stability of S. mutans genotypes represent a pattern of dental caries epidemiology in this high-caries-risk community, which suggests that fewer decayed surfaces are significantly associated with lower diversity and higher stability of S. mutans genotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyounga Cheon
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, University of Alabama School of Dentistry, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
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Five questions about Streptococcus mutans: theoretical study of its transmission and colonisation. Arch Oral Biol 2012; 57:1498-511. [PMID: 22541733 DOI: 10.1016/j.archoralbio.2012.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2011] [Revised: 03/01/2012] [Accepted: 03/29/2012] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE This theoretical study aimed to identify the decisive (and controllable) factors involved in Streptococcus mutans (Sm) infection through addressing questions about (i) the time and prevalence pattern (including the raison d'etre of the discrete period for the infection or WI) of initial Sm colonisation and (ii) the infant's selection of bacterial types and their diversity, which are not yet definitely answered by empirical works. METHOD A model of Sm infection (within-host type) was developed. For questions (i): using the basic model, stochastic simulation was performed to reproduce longitudinal observations of the initial colonisation time. A symmetrical or right-skewed gamma distribution was assumed for the maximum colonisable area (K(max)) and transmission rate (mx). Additionally, 3 or 4 developmental modes of colonisable area [K(t)] were assigned based on the K(max) value. For (ii): by extending the basic model to the two-bacterial type model, intraspecific competition analysis focusing on the differences in mx (received by the infancy) and colonisation ability (θD) was performed. RESULTS The basic model simulation showed that mx and K(t) played a pivotal role in determining the individual time of initial colonisation and their variations among infants in forming its prevalence patterns (with or without WI). The competition model simulation showed that higher mx could be more advantageous in competitive colonisation than higher θD under repeated invasions. Accordingly, it played a decisive role in infant's selection of initially, persistently and transiently colonising bacterial types, and thus in their diversity. CONCLUSIONS (i) The mx is the primary and controllable (risk) factor that extensively affects various aspects of the Sm infection process. (ii) Also, the growing carrying capacity, i.e., K(t) is another important factor when considering how to effectively delay the onset of the colonisation. (iii) Thus, currently, the most feasible and effective control measure for the infection should be microbiological interventions in the primary host with concurrent oral hygiene and dietary control in the exposed child.
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Sakai VT, Oliveira TM, Silva TC, Moretti ABS, Geller-Palti D, Biella VA, Machado MAAM. Knowledge and attitude of parents or caretakers regarding transmissibility of caries disease. J Appl Oral Sci 2009; 16:150-4. [PMID: 19089208 PMCID: PMC4327636 DOI: 10.1590/s1678-77572008000200013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2007] [Accepted: 09/28/2007] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Dental caries is a transmissible infectious disease in which mutans streptococci are generally considered to be the main etiological agents. Although the transmissibility of dental caries is relatively well established in the literature, little is known whether information regarding this issue is correctly provided to the population. The present study aimed at evaluating, by means of a questionnaire, the knowledge and usual attitude of 640 parents and caretakers regarding the transmissibility of caries disease. Most interviewed adults did not know the concept of dental caries being an infectious and transmissible disease, and reported the habit of blowing and tasting food, sharing utensils and kissing the children on their mouth. 372 (58.1%) adults reported that their children had already been seen by a dentist, 264 (41.3%) answered that their children had never gone to a dentist, and 4 (0.6%) did not know. When the adults were asked whether their children had already had dental caries, 107 (16.7%) answered yes, 489 (76.4%) answered no, and 44 (6.9%) did not know. Taken together, these data reinforce the need to provide the population with some important information regarding the transmission of dental caries in order to facilitate a more comprehensive approach towards the prevention of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivien T Sakai
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Orthodontics and Public Health, Bauru School of Dentistry, University of São Paulo, Bauru, Brazil
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Evaluation of (GTG)5-PCR for rapid identification of Streptococcus mutans. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 2008; 94:573-9. [PMID: 18709544 DOI: 10.1007/s10482-008-9275-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2008] [Accepted: 08/01/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Repetitive sequence-based polymerase chain reaction (PCR) fingerprinting using the (GTG)(5) primer was applied for fast screening of bacterial strains isolated from dental plaque of early childhood caries (ECC)-affected children. A group of 29 Gram-positive bacteria was separated into a homogeneous cluster together with Streptococcus mutans reference strains and constituted an aberrant branch after the numerical analysis of (GTG)(5)-PCR fingerprints. Automated ribotyping with EcoRI restriction enzyme (RiboPrinter microbial characterization system) revealed high genetic heterogeneity among the tested group and proved to be a good tool for strain-typing purposes. Further characterization of the studied strains was achieved by extensive phenotyping and whole-cell protein fingerprinting and confirmed all the strains as S. mutans representatives. Obtained results showed rep-PCR fingerprinting with the (GTG)(5) primer to be a fast and reliable method for identification of S. mutans.
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Lembo FL, Longo PL, Ota-Tsuzuki C, Rodrigues CRMD, Mayer MPA. Genotypic and phenotypic analysis of Streptococcus mutans from different oral cavity sites of caries-free and caries-active children. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 22:313-9. [PMID: 17803628 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-302x.2007.00361.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Streptococcus mutans exhibits extensive genotypic diversity, but the role of this variation is poorly understood. This study aimed to determine the number and distribution of genotypes of S. mutans isolated from caries-active and caries-free children and to evaluate some of their phenotypic traits. METHODS Stimulated saliva, tongue surface and biofilms over sound and carious teeth surfaces were sampled from 10 caries-free and 11 caries-active children aged 5-8 years. A total of 339 isolates of S. mutans were genotyped by arbitrarily primed polymerase chain reaction using OPA2 primer. One isolate from each genotype was tested for its acid susceptibility and its ability to form a biofilm. RESULTS Fifty-one distinct genotypes were determined, one to three genotypes in each oral sample. A single genotype was detected in seven children, whereas the remaining 14 children exhibited two to seven genotypes. There were no significant differences in the number of genotypes detected in caries-free and caries-active children. No correlation was observed between the number of genotypes and the mutans streptococci salivary levels. Five of the six high biofilm-forming genotypes were obtained from caries-active children, although the differences in biofilm formation between isolates from caries-free and caries-active children were not statistically significant. Genotypes with low susceptibility to acid challenge were statistically more frequent among isolates from caries-active children than among those from caries-free children. CONCLUSION The present data suggested that there were differences in the distribution of genotypes of S. mutans according to the oral site and that S. mutans populations differ in their acid susceptibility and ability to form biofilms, factors allowing their colonization of sucrose-rich environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- F L Lembo
- Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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Kilian M, Frandsen EVG, Haubek D, Poulsen K. The etiology of periodontal disease revisited by population genetic analysis. Periodontol 2000 2006; 42:158-79. [PMID: 16930310 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0757.2006.00159.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Mogens Kilian
- Department of Bacteriology, Institute of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Aarhus, Aarhus, Denmark
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Waterhouse JC, Russell RRB. Dispensable genes and foreign DNA in Streptococcus mutans. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2006; 152:1777-1788. [PMID: 16735740 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.28647-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
A range of properties, including the ability to utilize various sugars, bind macromolecules and produce mutacins, are known to vary in their occurrence in different strains of Streptococcus mutans. In addition, insertion-sequence elements show a limited distribution and sequencing of the genome of S. mutans UA159 has revealed the presence of putative genomic islands of atypical base composition indicative of foreign DNA. PCR primers flanking regions suspected of having inserted DNA were designed on the basis of the genome sequence of S. mutans UA159 and used to explore variation in a collection of 39 strains isolated in various parts of the world over the last 40 years. Extensive differences between strains were detected, and similar insertion/deletion events appear to be present in the genomes of strains with very different origins. In two instances, insertion of foreign DNA appears to have displaced original S. mutans genes. Together with previous results on the occurrence of deletions in genes associated with sugar metabolism, the results indicate that S. mutans has a core genome and a dispensable genome, and that dispensable genes have become widely distributed through horizontal transfer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janet C Waterhouse
- Oral Biology, School of Dental Sciences, University of Newcastle, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4BW, UK
| | - Roy R B Russell
- Oral Biology, School of Dental Sciences, University of Newcastle, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4BW, UK
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Kirchherr JL, Bowden GH, Richmond DA, Sheridan MJ, Wirth KA, Cole MF. Clonal diversity and turnover of Streptococcus mitis bv. 1 on shedding and nonshedding oral surfaces of human infants during the first year of life. CLINICAL AND DIAGNOSTIC LABORATORY IMMUNOLOGY 2005; 12:1184-90. [PMID: 16210481 PMCID: PMC1247832 DOI: 10.1128/cdli.12.10.1184-1190.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Streptococcus mitis bv. 1 is a pioneer colonizer of the human oral cavity. Studies of its population dynamics within parents and their infants and within neonates have shown extensive diversity within and between subjects. We examined the genetic diversity and clonal turnover of S. mitis bv. 1 isolated from the cheeks, tongue, and primary incisors of four infants from birth to 1 year of age. In addition, we compared the clonotypes of S. mitis bv. 1 isolated from their mothers' saliva collected in parallel to determine whether the mother was the origin of the clones colonizing her infant. Of 859 isolates obtained from the infants, 568 were unique clones. Each of the surfaces examined, whether shedding or nonshedding, displayed the same degree of diversity. Among the four infants it was rare to detect the same clone colonizing more than one surface at a given visit. There was little evidence for persistence of clones, but when clones were isolated on multiple visits they were not always found on the same surface. A similar degree of clonal diversity of S. mitis bv. 1 was observed in the mothers' saliva as in their infants' mouths. Clones common to both infant and mothers' saliva were found infrequently suggesting that this is not the origin of the infants' clones. It is unclear whether mucosal immunity exerts the environmental pressure driving the genetic diversity and clonal turnover of S. mitis bv. 1, which may be mechanisms employed by this bacterium to evade immune elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L Kirchherr
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC 20057, USA
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Meng L, Liu J, Peng B, Fan M, Nie M, Chen Z, Gan Y, Bian Z. The Persistence of Streptococcus mutans in Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Patients after Radiotherapy. Caries Res 2005; 39:484-9. [PMID: 16251793 DOI: 10.1159/000088184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2004] [Accepted: 02/28/2005] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of the study was to examine the persistence of oral Streptococcus mutans in nasopharyngeal carcinoma patients after radiotherapy. Ten subjects, ranging in age from 20 to 67 years, participated. DMFT/DMFS, salivary level of mutans streptococci and oral health status were recorded. Pooled plaque samples were obtained from the cervical margins and the interproximal regions of all the teeth and the occlusal surfaces of the molars prior to, immediately after, 3 and 6 months after the completion of radiotherapy. At least 10 colonies of S. mutans were isolated from each subject and totally 645 isolates were genotyped by restriction endonuclease analysis. The results showed that the salivary level of S. mutans increased significantly with the reduction of salivary flow rate after radiotherapy. Each subject had at least 1 genotype of S. mutans isolated throughout the follow-up period. In 3 subjects who initially carried 2 or more genotypes, 1 or 2 genotypes of S. mutans could not be detected 3 months after treatment. Moreover, the genotypes that became undetectable were predominant bacteria in the first sampling. The result indicated that most S. mutans genotypes were persistent after radiotherapy but some genotypes that might not adapt to the alteration of oral environment became undetectable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liuyan Meng
- Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Engineering (Wuhan University), Ministry of Education, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, PR China
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Napimoga MH, Höfling JF, Klein MI, Kamiya RU, Gonçalves RB. Tansmission, diversity and virulence factors of Sreptococcus mutans genotypes. J Oral Sci 2005; 47:59-64. [PMID: 16050484 DOI: 10.2334/josnusd.47.59] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
Dental caries is an infectious and transmissible disease, in which many genetic, environmental and behavioral risk factors interact. The mutans streptococci (MS), mainly Streptococcus mutans and Streptococcus sobrinus are the microorganisms most strongly associated with this disease. The main virulence factors associated with MS cariogenicity include adhesion, acidogenicity and acid tolerance. These properties work together to modify the physico-chemical properties of the biofilm, resulting in ecological changes in the form of increased proportions of S. mutans and other acidogenic and aciduric species. In addition, reports of higher numbers of S. mutans genotypes with increased virulence in caries-active subjects suggest the importance of microenvironmental factors in increasing the risk of caries. This review focuses on the transmission and establishment of different genotypes of S. mutans and the role they play in the development of dental caries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcelo Henrique Napimoga
- Department of Oral Diagnostics, Faculty of Dentistry of Piracicaba, University of Campinas, Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil
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Okada M, Soda Y, Hayashi F, Doi T, Suzuki J, Miura K, Kozai K. Longitudinal study of dental caries incidence associated with Streptococcus mutans and Streptococcus sobrinus in pre-school children. J Med Microbiol 2005; 54:661-665. [PMID: 15947431 DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.46069-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus mutans and Streptococcus sobrinus are known to be associated with the development of dental caries. In this study these bacteria were detected in pre-school children (each with primary dentition, age range 3-5 years, n = 60) using a PCR method, and then their presence was compared with the incidence of dental caries over a 1-year period. Plaque samples were collected from all erupted tooth sites using a sterile toothbrush. Dental examinations at the beginning of the study (baseline) and after 1 year were also performed to determine decayed, missing, filled teeth (dmft) scores using WHO caries diagnostic criteria. The prevalences of S. mutans and S. sobrinus across all the subjects were 61.7% and 56.6%, respectively; 13 subjects (21.7%) were positive for S. mutans alone, 10 (16.6%) were positive for S. sobrinus alone and 24 (40.0%) were positive for both S. mutans and S. sobrinus, whereas 13 (21.7%) were negative for both S. mutans and S. sobrinus. dmft scores of subjects positive for both S. mutans and S. sobrinus at baseline and after 1 year were significantly higher than of those positive for S. mutans alone at the same stages (P < 0.01 and P < 0.001, respectively). The caries incremental increase was also significantly greater in those with both bacteria detected (P < 0.05). Our results indicate that pre-school children harbouring both S. mutans and S. sobrinus have a significantly higher incidence of dental caries than those with S. mutans alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitsugi Okada
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Hiroshima University Faculty of Dentistry, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Yoshiko Soda
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Hiroshima University Faculty of Dentistry, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Fumiko Hayashi
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Hiroshima University Faculty of Dentistry, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Takako Doi
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Hiroshima University Faculty of Dentistry, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Junji Suzuki
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Hiroshima University Faculty of Dentistry, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Kazuo Miura
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Hiroshima University Faculty of Dentistry, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Katsuyuki Kozai
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Hiroshima University Faculty of Dentistry, Hiroshima, Japan
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Abstract
Patients in an intensive care unit (ICU) may have significant oral health needs. This article offers a review of the available literature regarding oral care for patients in the ICU. Based on this review, the author describes signs and symptoms reported as common among patients in the ICU and makes recommendations concerning their oral care. The implications of these findings are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Jones
- Bewdley Dental Practice, 51/52 Load Street, Bewdley, Worcestershire, DY12 2AP, England.
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16
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Liu J, Bian Z, Fan M, He H, Nie M, Fan B, Peng B, Chen Z. Typing of Mutans Streptococci by Arbitrarily Primed PCR in Patients Undergoing Orthodontic Treatment. Caries Res 2004; 38:523-9. [PMID: 15528906 DOI: 10.1159/000080581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2003] [Accepted: 01/08/2004] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to clarify the genotypic stability of mutans streptococci (MS) longitudinally during orthodontic treatment. Plaque samples were obtained from the supragingival smooth surface of the upper right teeth at four stages: prior to and after 1, 3 and 6 months of orthodontic treatment. Levels of total viable count, total streptococci and MS in dental plaque of 17 patients were recorded. Streptococci isolated from dental plaque samples were identified as MS on the basis of their morphological and biochemical properties. DNA was prepared from 713 strains of MS and the strains were then identified with polymerase chain reaction (PCR) again. Arbitrarily primed PCR (AP-PCR) fingerprinting was applied in determining the genotypes of MS. The results indicated that levels of total viable count, total streptococci and MS increased significantly after the fixed appliances were bonded. A maximum of 3 different genotypes were found in an individual. All the genotypes were found again after the application of the fixed appliances in 17 patients. A new AP-PCR typing pattern was found after the application of fixed appliances for 1 month in patient 1. That strain was not detected either prior to or after 3, or 6 months of treatment. The result indicated that the MS clones were very stable during orthodontic treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiarong Liu
- Key Laboratory for Oral Biomedical Engineering, Ministry of Education, School and Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, PR China
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17
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Klein MI, Flório FM, Pereira AC, Höfling JF, Gonçalves RB. Longitudinal study of transmission, diversity, and stability of Streptococcus mutans and Streptococcus sobrinus genotypes in Brazilian nursery children. J Clin Microbiol 2004; 42:4620-6. [PMID: 15472319 PMCID: PMC522380 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.42.10.4620-4626.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2003] [Revised: 02/15/2004] [Accepted: 05/20/2004] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to perform a follow-up evaluation of the Streptococcus mutans and Streptococcus sobrinus colonization profile of children's oral cavities, which included the pattern of vertical transmission from mother to child, genotypic diversity, and stability of the strains. The subjects were 16 mother-child pairs, who were monitored for 20 months. Samples of saliva, tongue dorsum, alveolar ridge mucosa, and dental plaque from the children were collected bimonthly. Saliva samples from the mothers were also collected. After isolation and identification, the arbitrarily primed PCR method was performed for the genotypic characterization of S. mutans (968 isolates) and S. sobrinus (111 isolates). At the time the strains were acquired, the children harbored one to four distinct genotypes of S. mutans and only one genotype of S. sobrinus. Although S. mutans prevalence and genotypic diversity were greater than those of S. sobrinus, the presence of matching genotypes of S. mutans and S. sobrinus was similar (in 81.25 and 83.33% of mother-child pairs, respectively), suggesting vertical transmission for both species. This longitudinal study showed an increase in genotypic diversity of S. mutans in the oral cavity during the follow-up period: most of the initially acquired genotypes persisted, normally those genotypes transmitted by the mother, and some were lost during follow-up; new strains were also acquired. In conclusion, S. mutans and S. sobrinus genotypes acquired from maternal or alternative sources may show effective persistence in the oral cavity and/or transitory detection in the children's mouths, reflecting the continuous development of oral microbiota in children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlise Inêz Klein
- Department of Oral Diagnosis, State University of Campinas-Piracicaba School of Dentistry, São Paulo, Brazil
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Nascimento MM, Höfling JF, Gonçalves RB. Streptococcus mutans Genotypes Isolated from Root and Coronal Caries. Caries Res 2004; 38:454-63. [PMID: 15316190 DOI: 10.1159/000079627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2002] [Accepted: 12/19/2003] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to evaluate the colonization profile and clonal distribution of Streptococcus mutans isolated from oral cavities that presented coronal and root caries lesions. The isolation and biochemical identification of mutans streptococci were carried out by using saliva samples, dental plaque, and tissue from the caries lesions. In order to confirm their molecular identity, S. mutans and Streptococcus sobrinus were submitted to the PCR method, using specific primers for portions of the glucosyltransferase genes (gtfB and gtfI, respectively). The AP-PCR method was used to detect the genetic polymorphism of S. mutans strains. Among the isolated and identified species, S. mutans showed a significantly greater frequency of isolation (59.2%) than the other mutans streptococci. Each of the subjects harbored two to ten genotypes of S. mutans, randomly distributed in different sites. S. mutans genotypes showed no evidence of variability in colonizing noncarious and carious surfaces within the same individual, nor evidence of etiologic differences between coronal and root caries. This study showed that no particular genotype of S. mutans is uniquely associated with the initiation and progression of caries, and that root and coronal caries can emerge in the presence of a broad spectrum of S. mutans clones.
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Affiliation(s)
- M M Nascimento
- Department of Oral Diagnosis, Faculty of Dentistry of Piracicaba, University of Campinas, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil
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19
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Ruby JD, Li Y, Luo Y, Caufield PW. Genetic diversity of Actinomyces naeslundii genospecies 2 in mother–child pairs. Arch Oral Biol 2003; 48:851-5. [PMID: 14596875 DOI: 10.1016/s0003-9969(03)00179-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Actinomyces naeslundii genospecies 2 (gsp-2) are members of the autochthonous oral flora. Chromosomal DNA fingerprinting (CDF) with SmaI revealed extensive genetic diversity among A. naeslundii gsp-2 strains within individual mothers and children. There was a low prevalence of genotype match among A. naeslundii gsp-2 strains between all mother and child pairs.
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Affiliation(s)
- J D Ruby
- Department of Oral Biology, School of Dentistry, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA.
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20
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Köhler B, Lundberg AB, Birkhed D, Papapanou PN. Longitudinal study of intrafamilial mutans streptococci ribotypes. Eur J Oral Sci 2003; 111:383-9. [PMID: 12974680 DOI: 10.1034/j.1600-0722.2003.00068.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
To explore the intrafamilial homology and longitudinal stability of colonization by early acquired mutans streptococci, genomic fingerprinting was performed on 254 strains (192 Streptococcus mutans and 62 Streptococcus sobrinus strains) collected from 16 families (16 mother-child pairs, seven fathers and four siblings). Genomic DNA was digested by the restriction endonuclease HindIII, followed by gel electrophoresis, Southern blotting, and hybridization with a digoxigenin-labeled 16S rDNA probe, and hybrid detection by enhanced chemiluminescence. One to five ribotypes were identified per person, and between two and nine (median five) within each family. Fourteen of the 16 mother-child pairs showed homology for at least one ribotype (range 1-4). Six of the seven father-child pairs had one ribotype in common. Ten of the 13 longitudinally examined children showed persistence of at least one ribotype over a period of up to 16 yr. The results support the notion of intrafamilial transfer of mutans streptococci, and suggest that colonization of early acquired strains persists into young adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Birgitta Köhler
- Public Dental Service, Göteborg, Faculty of Odontology, Sahlgrenska Academy at Göteborg University, Göteborg, Sweden.
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21
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Redmo Emanuelsson IM, Carlsson P, Hamberg K, Bratthall D. Tracing genotypes of mutans streptococci on tooth sites by random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis. ORAL MICROBIOLOGY AND IMMUNOLOGY 2003; 18:24-9. [PMID: 12588455 DOI: 10.1034/j.1399-302x.2002.180104.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to clarify the distribution and persistence of mutans streptococci on different tooth sites in the same oral cavity. Thirteen subjects, aged 20-40 years, were examined. Salivary levels of mutans streptococci, caries prevalence, oral hygiene habits and status of tooth surfaces sampled were recorded. Plaque samples were obtained from four sites, the mesial and buccal surfaces of the first permanent molar on the right side of the lower jaw (46m and 46b), the distal surface of the first permanent premolar (24d) and the mesial surface of the second permanent premolar (25m) on the left side of the upper jaw, using sterile toothpicks on two occasions at 4-7-month intervals. The samples were cultivated on site-specific Strip mutans. Up to 10 colonies/site were isolated when present and genotyped by random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis, after species identification with PCR. Genotyping was also performed by restriction endonuclease analysis (REA) on 148 isolates, and results were consistent with the RAPD results. Most mutans streptococcus-positive samples were obtained from 46m. Within each individual, the same genotype occurred on at least two sites on all but one sampling occasion. A maximum of seven different genotypes were found in an individual. For a particular tooth site, four genotypes occurred simultaneously and taking both sampling occasions together the maximum was six different types. The same genotypes/types were found again after 4-7 months on 25 sites in 12 subjects. Fifteen sites were mutans streptococcus-positive on only one sampling occasion. The results indicate that several different genotypes of mutans streptococci colonize a tooth site, and that the same genotype colonizes several sites in the same oral cavity. Persistence of genotypes on a site for several months and interindividual differences in the occurrence of genotypes were also found.
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22
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Mattos-Graner RO, Li Y, Caufield PW, Duncan M, Smith DJ. Genotypic diversity of mutans streptococci in Brazilian nursery children suggests horizontal transmission. J Clin Microbiol 2001; 39:2313-6. [PMID: 11376080 PMCID: PMC88134 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.39.6.2313-2316.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus mutans strains were isolated from cohorts of Brazilian nursery school children and genotyped by arbitrarily primed PCR and restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. Of 24 children with two to five S. mutans isolates, 29% carried two or more genotypes. The presence of matching genotypes of S. mutans among children attending one nursery suggests horizontal transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- R O Mattos-Graner
- Departments of Immunology, The Forsyth Institute, 140 The Fenway, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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23
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Redmo Emanuelsson IM, Thornqvist E. Distribution of mutans streptococci in families: a longitudinal study. Acta Odontol Scand 2001; 59:93-8. [PMID: 11370757 DOI: 10.1080/000163501750157234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was 1) to investigate whether a group of children not colonized by mutans streptococci (MS) at the age of 3 years were colonized several years later, and 2) to study whether MS that appeared in the children were identical to those found in the parents. In a previous study no MS were found in 13 3-year-old first-born children. In 10 of these children pooled plaque samples were again collected after 5 years, and in the other 3 children after 2 years. Additionally, separate plaque samples were obtained from the children's first permanent molars when the teeth were present. Pooled samples were also obtained from all the parental pairs at follow-up and from three pairs at baseline. MS were isolated, and genotyping was done through DNA fingerprinting by restriction endonuclease analysis. In 10 children MS were still not found. Among the three children with detectable MS the DNA fingerprints of the bacteria were the same in one girl and her mother and in one boy and his father; in the other boy no similar pattern was found in either mother or father. None of the individuals in the 13 parental pairs showed identical genotypes of MS. The results indicate an opportunity to remain MS-negative if not colonized at the age of 3 years. The difficulty of being colonized with MS from the spouse is highlighted.
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Abstract
Dental plaque is being redefined as oral biofilm. Diverse overlapping microbial consortia are present on all oral tissues. Biofilms are structured, displaying features like channels and projections. Constituent species switch back and forth between sessile and planktonic phases. Saliva is the medium for planktonic suspension. Several major functions can be defined for saliva in relation to oral biofilm. It serves as a medium for transporting planktonic bacteria within and between mouths. Bacteria in transit may be vulnerable to negative selection. Salivary agglutinins may prevent reattachment to surfaces. Killing by antimicrobial proteins may lead to attachment of dead cells. Salivary proteins form conditioning films on all oral surfaces. This contributes to positive selection for microbial adherence. Saliva carries chemical messengers which allow live adherent cells to sense a critical density of conspecifics. Growth begins, and thick biofilms may become resistant to antimicrobial substances. Salivary macromolecules may be catabolized, but salivary flow also may clear dietary substrates. Salivary proteins act in ways that benefit both host and microbe. All have multiple functions, and many do the same job. They form heterotypic complexes, which may exist in large micelle-like structures. These issues make it useful to compare subjects whose saliva functions differently. We have developed a simultaneous assay for aggregation, killing, live adherence, and dead adherence of oral species. Screening of 149 subjects has defined high killing/low adherence, low killing/high adherence, high killing/high adherence, and low killing/low adherence groups. These will be evaluated for differences in their flora.
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Affiliation(s)
- J D Rudney
- Department of Oral Science, School of Dentistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis 55455, USA.
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Brisse S, Milatovic D, Fluit AC, Kusters K, Toelstra A, Verhoef J, Schmitz FJ. Molecular surveillance of European quinolone-resistant clinical isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter spp. using automated ribotyping. J Clin Microbiol 2000; 38:3636-45. [PMID: 11015376 PMCID: PMC87449 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.38.10.3636-3645.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2000] [Accepted: 08/11/2000] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Nosocomial isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter spp. exhibit high rates of resistance to antibiotics and are often multidrug resistant. In a previous study (D. Milatovic, A. Fluit, S. Brisse, J. Verhoef, and F. J. Schmitz, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 44:1102-1107, 2000), isolates of these species that were resistant to sitafloxacin, a new advanced-generation fluoroquinolone with a high potency and a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity, were found in high proportion in 23 European hospitals. Here, we investigate the clonal diversity of the 155 P. aeruginosa and 145 Acinetobacter spp. sitafloxacin-resistant isolates from that study by automated ribotyping. Numerous ribogroups (sets of isolates with indistinguishable ribotypes) were found among isolates of P. aeruginosa (n = 34) and Acinetobacter spp. (n = 16), but the majority of the isolates belonged to a limited number of major ribogroups. Sitafloxacin-resistant isolates (MICs > 2 mg/liter, used as a provisional breakpoint) showed increased concomitant resistance to piperacillin, piperacillin-tazobactam, ceftriaxone, ceftazidime, amikacin, gentamicin, and imipenem. The major ribogroups were repeatedly found in isolates from several European hospitals; these isolates showed higher levels of resistance to gentamicin and imipenem, and some of them appeared to correspond to previously described multidrug-resistant international clones of P. aeruginosa (serotype O:12) and Acinetobacter baumannii (clones I and II). Automated ribotyping, when used in combination with more discriminatory typing methods, may be a convenient library typing system for monitoring future epidemiological dynamics of geographically widespread multidrug-resistant bacterial clones.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Brisse
- Eijkman-Winkler Institute, Utrecht University, 3584 CX Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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26
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Kozai K, Nakayama R, Tedjosasongko U, Kuwahara S, Suzuki J, Okada M, Nagasaka N. Intrafamilial distribution of mutans streptococci in Japanese families and possibility of father-to-child transmission. Microbiol Immunol 1999; 43:99-106. [PMID: 10229263 DOI: 10.1111/j.1348-0421.1999.tb02380.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the intrafamilial distribution of mutans streptococci in Japanese families using chromosomal DNA fingerprinting with three endonucleases; EcoRI, HindIII and HaeIII. The analysis of 1,908 isolates cultured from the dental plaque of 76 subjects from 20 families (20 married couples and 36 of their children) resulted in the identification of 144 genotypes containing 114 strains of Streptococcus mutans (serotype c, 66.7%; e, 12.5%) and 30 strains of S. sobrinus (d, 13.2%; g, 7.6%). A mean of 1.89 genotypes (from one to four) was harbored in individual subjects, and a mean of 4.10 genotypes from two to seven was harbored in individual families. Among the 70 genotypes found in the children, 36 (51.4%) were in agreement with their mothers and 22 (31.4%) were in agreement with their fathers. The other genotypes (18.6%) did not correspond with the parents. Homologous strains between parents were found in only two couples. This result showed that fathers or others as well as mothers can be sources of transmission. Further, the serotype d, e and g strains showed significantly higher probabilities of transmission than serotype c.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Kozai
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Hiroshima University School of Dentistry, Hiroshima, Japan.
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27
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De La Higuera A, Gutiérrez J, Liébana J, Garcia-Mendoza A, Castillo A. A new biotyping method for Streptococcus mutans with the API ZYM system. Clin Microbiol Infect 1999; 5:88-91. [PMID: 11856223 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.1999.tb00108.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE: To test a new system for the biotyping of Streptococcus mutans, based on the measurement of enzyme activity, and to investigate the relationship between biotype and in vitro susceptibility to seven clinically useful antibiotics. METHODS: In total, 160 oral isolates of S. mutans were classified into different biotypes with the APIZYM test for enzyme activity, excluding results that were positive or negative in >80% of the strains. The susceptibility of all 160 strains to amoxycillin, cefazolin, erythromycin, clindamycin, vancomycin, teicoplanin and imipenem was tested by dilution in a solid medium. Statistical analysis of susceptibility (mean minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs)) was based on chi-squared tests. RESULTS: Eight different biotypes (1-8) were identified on the basis of three kinds of enzyme activity: valine aryl amidase, acid phosphatase and alpha-galactosidase. Biotype 5 was found to be the most common. The mean MIC values showed strains belonging to biotype 4 to be the most susceptible to amoxycillin, cefazolin and erythromycin, whereas biotype 1 was the least susceptible to teicoplanin. CONCLUSIONS: The proposed biotyping method, which is relatively fast and simple to perform, provided reproducible results, and may contribute to clinically effective treatment of S. mutans infections.
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Hajishengallis G, Michalek SM. Current status of a mucosal vaccine against dental caries. ORAL MICROBIOLOGY AND IMMUNOLOGY 1999; 14:1-20. [PMID: 10204475 DOI: 10.1034/j.1399-302x.1999.140101.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The evidence of a specific bacterial cause of dental caries and of the function of the salivary glands as an effector site of the mucosal immune system has provided a scientific basis for the development of a vaccine against this highly prevalent and costly oral disease. Research efforts towards developing an effective and safe caries vaccine have been facilitated by progress in molecular biology, with the cloning and functional characterization of virulence factors from mutans streptococci, the principal causative agent of dental caries, and advancements in mucosal immunology, including the development of sophisticated antigen delivery systems and adjuvants that stimulate the induction of salivary immunoglobulin A antibody responses. Cell-surface fibrillar proteins, which mediate adherence to the salivary pellicle, and glucosyltransferase enzymes, which synthesize adhesive glucans and allow microbial accumulation, are virulence components of mutans streptococci, and primary candidates for a human caries vaccine. Infants, representing the primary target population for a caries vaccine, become mucosally immunocompetent and secrete salivary immunoglobulin A antibodies during the first weeks after birth, whereas mutans streptococci colonize the tooth surfaces at a discrete time period that extends around 26 months of life. Therefore, immunization when infants are about one year old may establish effective immunity against an ensuing colonization attempts by mutans streptococci. The present review critically evaluates recent progress in this field of dental research and attempts to stress the protective potential as well as limitations of caries immunization.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Hajishengallis
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Alabama, Birmingham 35294-2170, USA
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Straetemans MM, van Loveren C, de Soet JJ, de Graaff J, ten Cate JM. Colonization with mutans streptococci and lactobacilli and the caries experience of children after the age of five. J Dent Res 1998; 77:1851-5. [PMID: 9786642 DOI: 10.1177/00220345980770101301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Some authors suggest that there is a "window of infectivity" for mutans streptococci (MS) at an early age, after which colonization is not likely to occur. Moreover, children with low or non-detectable levels of MS at an early age are at lower risk for caries. It was our aim to study caries experience and colonization with MS and lactobacilli in a group of children at 11 years of age who had been documented to have been MS-free until 5 years of age. For this group, the mfs and MFS values at 11 years of age were found to be 1.12+/-2.81 and 0.44+/-0.88, respectively. These values are much lower than those of a control group of 11-year-old children who had always been MS-positive since the age of 2, being 3.10+/-3.43 and 1.20+/-1.91, respectively. Of the 30 children without detectable MS up to the age of 5, 22 had acquired MS at 11 years of age, but their MS counts were significantly lower than those of the control group. No correlation was observed between the levels of MS of the children and the mothers. In children at 11 years of age, no differences were found in the numbers of lactobacilli and sugar intakes per week between the children MS-free and the children MS-colonized at 5 years of age. The present study indicates that the acquisition of MS is still possible after the so-called "window of infectivity" and that a delayed acquisition of MS may reduce the caries experience in the primary and permanent dentition at a later age.
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Affiliation(s)
- M M Straetemans
- Department of Cariology, Academic Centre for Dentistry Amsterdam (ACTA), The Netherlands
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30
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Grönroos L, Saarela M, Mättö J, Tanner-Salo U, Vuorela A, Alaluusua S. Mutacin production by Streptococcus mutans may promote transmission of bacteria from mother to child. Infect Immun 1998; 66:2595-600. [PMID: 9596721 PMCID: PMC108243 DOI: 10.1128/iai.66.6.2595-2600.1998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The production of bacteriocin-like inhibitory substances, mutacins, by mutans streptococci varies among isolates. To find if the degree of mutacin activity of an isolate was related to its transmission between mother and her child, 19 mothers and their 18-month- to 3-year-old children were sampled for their oral mutans streptococci. In addition, the stability of mutacin activity was studied with isolates from the mothers and with isolates from five unrelated 5-year-old children in 5- to 7-year follow-up studies. A total of 145 oral mutans streptococcal isolates were serotyped by immunodiffusion, ribotyped, and mutacin typed by the stab culture technique. Mutacin was produced by 88% of the strains against more than 1 of the 14 indicator strains, representing mutans streptococci, Streptococcus sanguis, Streptococcus salivarius, Streptococcus oralis, Streptococcus gordonii, and Streptococcus pyogenes. Streptococcus mutans isolates showed more inhibitory activity than did Streptococcus sobrinus isolates. Identical ribotypes had similar mutacin activity profiles within a subject, initially and in the follow-up studies, in all but two cases. The mothers harbored a total of 37 different mutans streptococcal ribotypes. Six children were negative for mutans streptococci. Transmission was probable in 9 of 20 mother-child pairs on the basis of the presence of identical strains, as determined by ribotyping and bacteriocin (mutacin) typing. S. mutans strains shared between a mother and her child showed a broader spectrum of inhibitory activity than did nontransmitted strains. In conclusion, the mutacin activity of clinical isolates is reasonably stable, and this virulence factor seems to be of clinical importance in early colonization by S. mutans.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Grönroos
- Department of Pedodontics and Orthodontics, University of Helsinki, Finland.
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31
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Höfling JF, Rosa EA, Baptista MJ, Spolidório DM. New strategies on molecular biology applied to microbial systematics. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 1997; 39:345-52. [PMID: 9674286 DOI: 10.1590/s0036-46651997000600007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Systematics is the study of diversity of the organisms and their relationships comprising classification, nomenclature and identification. The term classification or taxonomy means the arrangement of the organisms in groups (rate) and the nomenclature is the attribution of correct international scientific names to organisms and identification is the inclusion of unknown strains in groups derived from classification. Therefore, classification for a stable nomenclature and a perfect identification are required previously. The beginning of the new bacterial systematics era can be remembered by the introduction and application of new taxonomic concepts and techniques, from the 50's and 60's. Important progress were achieved using numerical taxonomy and molecular taxonomy. Molecular taxonomy, brought into effect after the emergence of the Molecular Biology resources, provided knowledge that comprises systematics of bacteria, in which occurs great evolutionary interest, or where is observed the necessity of eliminating any environmental interference. When you study the composition and disposition of nucleotides in certain portions of the genetic material, you study searching their genome, much less susceptible to environmental alterations than proteins, codified based on it. In the molecular taxonomy, you can research both DNA and RNA, and the main techniques that have been used in the systematics comprise the build of restriction maps, DNA-DNA hybridization, DNA-RNA hybridization, sequencing of DNA sequencing of sub-units 16S and 23S of rRNA, RAPD, RFLP, PFGE etc. Techniques such as base sequencing, though they are extremely sensible and greatly precise, are relatively onerous and impracticable to the great majority of the bacterial taxonomy laboratories. Several specialized techniques have been applied to taxonomic studies of microorganisms. In the last years, these have included preliminary electrophoretic analysis of soluble proteins and isoenzymes, and subsequently determination of deoxyribonucleic acid base composition and assessment of base sequence homology by means of DNA-RNA hybrid experiments beside others. These various techniques, as expected, have generally indicated a lack of taxonomic information in microbial systematics. There are numberless techniques and methodologies that make bacteria identification and classification study possible, part of them described here, allowing establish different degrees of subspecific and interspecific similarity through phenetic-genetic polymorphism analysis. However, was pointed out the necessity of using more than one technique for better establish similarity degrees within microorganisms. Obtaining data resulting from application of a sole technique isolatedly may not provide significant information from Bacterial Systematics viewpoint.
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Affiliation(s)
- J F Höfling
- Oral Diagnosis Department, Laboratory of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Dentistry, University of Campinas, Piracicaba, SP, Brasil.
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32
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Novák J, Shah GR, Zhu Y, Caufield PW. Ribosomal RNA (rrn) operons in Streptococcus mutans and nucleotide sequence of tRNA(Pro) gene associated with rrnB. ORAL MICROBIOLOGY AND IMMUNOLOGY 1997; 12:227-30. [PMID: 9467391 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-302x.1997.tb00383.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Using a cloned 0.5-kb probe containing an internal fragment of 23S ribosomal RNA from the rrnB operon of Streptococcus mutans, we analyzed various endonuclease digests of the chromosomal DNA isolated from human-derived strains of mutans streptococci. Thus far, the examined S. mutans strains exhibited five ribosomal operons. Here, we describe a ribotyping technique for S. mutans based on restriction and Southern blot analyses with the biotin-labeled homologous probe and chemiluminescence detection. We cloned and sequenced a unique gene encoding tRNA(Pro) downstream from 23S rRNA gene at the 3' end of the operon. Primers designed to the 3' end of the rrnB operon PCR-amplified a 2.3-kb DNA fragment in all tested strains. Restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of the amplicon revealed a diversity of the single locus among S. mutans isolates, thus establishing a potential use of the technique for the molecular epidemiology of mutans streptococci.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Novák
- University of Alabama at Birmingham, School of Dentistry 35294, USA
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Bowden GH. Does assessment of microbial composition of plaque/saliva allow for diagnosis of disease activity of individuals? Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 1997; 25:76-81. [PMID: 9088695 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0528.1997.tb00902.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Microbiological tests are limited in their applicability in the assessment of caries activity and in caries prediction. They can be effective in group of persons with high or low caries experience. The reasons for the limitation of microbiological tests rests with unique characteristics of the microflora and local environments of the oral cavity, which will modify the cariogenicity of plaque in an individual. Thus, high numbers of S. mutans may be associated with the development of a lesion at a site, while a second susceptible site with high levels of this organism in the same subject will remain caries free. This paper identifies some aspects of oral bacteria which can contribute to the unique nature of the microflora associated with plaque in an individual. Firstly, the range of bacteria potentially involved in caries has widened and now includes, for example, 'low pH' non-mutans streptococci. The presence of such organisms in plaque in an individual may influence early enamel demineralization. Most significantly, Streptococcus mutans, Streptococcus mitis and Actinomyces naeslundii have been shown to be comprise many distinct clones, with different distribution among subjects. Little is known of the impact of clonal diversity on caries activity but in some bacterial diseases particular clones are associated with virulence. Therefore, possession of a particular clone or clones by an individual could be related to caries activity. Also, the extent of clonal diversity may reflect the nature of the oral environment. Recent studies suggest that cells are released from biofilms, during adherence and growth, i.e. the early phases of development. Thus, determination of the numbers of a given species in non-stimulated saliva may indicate whether it is actively growing in plaque. Microbiological tests on the oral flora should perhaps be used to monitor the status of the oral cavity, after establishing a norm for the individual patient. Research on species and clonal diversity of oral bacteria among human populations; diversity and its role in the caries process; and the liberation of biofilm cells could provide data to allow better appreciation and evaluation of the results of microbiological testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- G H Bowden
- Department of Oral Biology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada
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Fitzsimmons S, Evans M, Pearce C, Sheridan MJ, Wientzen R, Bowden G, Cole MF. Clonal diversity of Streptococcus mitis biovar 1 isolates from the oral cavity of human neonates. CLINICAL AND DIAGNOSTIC LABORATORY IMMUNOLOGY 1996; 3:517-22. [PMID: 8877128 PMCID: PMC170399 DOI: 10.1128/cdli.3.5.517-522.1996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The clonal diversity of 101 isolates of the pioneer bacterium Streptococcus mitis biovar 1 obtained from the oral cavities of 40 human neonates 1 to 3 days, 2 weeks, and 1 month postpartum was examined by using rRNA gene restriction patterns. There was a high degree of genetic diversity, with the 101 isolates comprising 93 unique PvuII ribotypes. There were eight identical pairs of ribotype patterns, and seven of the eight pairs were obtained from individual neonates. Only one identical pair comprised isolates obtained from different neonates. In all but two cases, isolates with matching ribotypes were obtained at one visit. Two pairs of isolates with matching ribotype patterns were obtained from neonates on successive visits. The ribotype patterns of the isolates were examined by cluster analysis. The isolates forming each cluster were very similar, yet each cluster was well separated from its neighbors. When several isolates were obtained from individual neonates at a particular visit, in some instances they were contained in a single cluster, whereas in other cases each isolate was contained in a separate cluster. Isolates obtained from individual neonates on successive visits tended to be contained in different clusters. This high degree of diversity, which has been observed in other mucosal commensal bacteria, may serve as a mechanism for avoiding immune elimination of these bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Fitzsimmons
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC 20007, USA
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35
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Saarela M, Hannula J, Mättö J, Asikainen S, Alaluusua S. Typing of mutans streptococci by arbitrarily primed polymerase chain reaction. Arch Oral Biol 1996; 41:821-6. [PMID: 9022919 DOI: 10.1016/s0003-9969(96)00049-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The discriminative power of the arbitrarily primed polymerase chain reaction (AP-PCR) in differentiating between Streptococcus mutans and Strep. sobrinus species, serotypes and clones was investigated. Mutans streptococcal isolates (12(7)) obtained from 65 individuals (1-10 isolates per individual) were AP-PCR typed separately with two random primers, OPA-05 and OPA-13. Bacterial cell lysates were used as a template in PCR reactions, which made AP-PCR easy and fast to perform. Eighty-one isolates from 19 individuals were also ribotyped to compare the discriminative ability of ribotyping and AP-PCR techniques. AP-PCR performed with the two primers differentiated between Strep. mutans and Strep. sobrinus isolates, but neither primer detected serotype-specific amplification products. OPA-05 distinguished two main AP-PCR patterns among Strep. mutans isolates and one main pattern among Strep. sobrinus isolates, whereas OPA-13 found one main AP-PCR pattern among Strep. mutans isolates and two main patterns among Strep. sobrinus isolates. Ribotyping and AP-PCR revealed 40 and 33 different types among 81 selected isolates, respectively. Both techniques detected intra-individual heterogeneity in 16 out of 19 participants. The results indicate that AP-PCR has good discriminative ability in differentiating between mutans streptococcal clones and that the technique is suitable for epidemiological studies on mutans streptococci.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Saarela
- Research Laboratory, University of Helsinki, Finland
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36
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Liljemark WF, Bloomquist C. Human oral microbial ecology and dental caries and periodontal diseases. CRITICAL REVIEWS IN ORAL BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF ORAL BIOLOGISTS 1996; 7:180-98. [PMID: 8875032 DOI: 10.1177/10454411960070020601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
In the human oral cavity, which is an open growth system, bacteria must first adhere to a surface in order to be able to colonize. Ability to colonize a non-shedding tooth surface is necessary prior to any odontopathic or periodontopathic process. Complex microbe-host relationships occur and must be studied before the commensal-to-pathogenic nature of the human indigenous oral flora can be understood. Medical pathogens, if present in the appropriate host, always produce specific disease. Caries and periodontal diseases are conditional diseases, requiring numbers of certain indigenous species at various sites, particularly the tooth surface. In the case of caries, the condition is related to sugar consumption. Periodontal disease/s may require certain host and environmental conditions, such as local environment or nutritional factors in gingival crevicular fluids. Nonetheless, critical numbers of certain indigenous species must be present in order for these diseases to occur. The aim of this review is to understand the acquisition of the indigenous oral flora and the development of human dental plaque. The role of the salivary pellicle and adherence of indigenous bacteria to it are critical first steps in plaque development. Bacterial interactions with saliva, nutritional factors, growth factors, and microbial physiologic processes are all involved in the overall process of microbial colonization.
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Affiliation(s)
- W F Liljemark
- Department of Diagnostic and Surgical Sciences, University of Minnesota School of Dentistry, Minneapolis 55455-0329, USA
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37
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Alaluusua S, Mättö J, Grönroos L, Innilä S, Torkko H, Asikainen S, Jousimies-Somer H, Saarela M. Oral colonization by more than one clonal type of mutans streptococcus in children with nursing-bottle dental caries. Arch Oral Biol 1996; 41:167-73. [PMID: 8712973 DOI: 10.1016/0003-9969(95)00111-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
By ribotyping the genetic diversity of mutans streptococci in six 1.5-3-yr-old children with nursing-bottle caries and in six caries-free, age-matched children and in their mothers was examined. The proportion of mutans streptococci in the dental plaque of the children and their levels in the saliva of the mothers were also examined. For ribotyping, chromosomal DNA of isolates obtained from the plaque of the children (3-12 isolates per child) and from the saliva of the mothers (4-13 isolates per mother) was digested with restriction endonuclease HindIII. The DNA fragments were hybridized to the plasmid pKK3535 which contains the rRNA operon of the Escherichia coli chromosome. The results showed that children with nursing-bottle caries exposed to frequent consumption of sucrose had a high proportion of mutans streptococci in plaque and four of them were colonized with more than one ribotype, whereas caries-free children had a low proportion of mutans streptococci in plaque and only one of them harboured more than one ribotype. Mothers of children with nursing bottle caries had similar levels and numbers of ribotypes of mutans streptococci in saliva as the mothers of the caries-free children. In both child groups, mothers were probably the main source of infection with mutans streptococci. Thus, children with nursing-bottle caries were not only heavily infected with mutans streptococci but also often colonized with more than one clonal type. In the child's acquisition of such clones, frequent sugar consumption may have an important role.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Alaluusua
- Department of Pedodontics and Orthodontics, University of Helsinki, Finland
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Grönroos L, Mättö J, Saarela M, Luoma AR, Luoma H, Jousimies-Somer H, Pyhälä L, Asikainen S, Alaluusua S. Chlorhexidine susceptibilities of mutans streptococcal serotypes and ribotypes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995; 39:894-8. [PMID: 7785991 PMCID: PMC162649 DOI: 10.1128/aac.39.4.894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The susceptibilities of 379 clinical mutans streptococcal isolates to chlorhexidine (CHX) were tested by agar dilution according to the standards of the National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards. Isolates were obtained from saliva samples of 34 young mothers who had high or moderate salivary levels of mutans streptococci at baseline. Samples were collected on three occasions, before childbirth, when each child was 6 months old, and 1 year later. Of these isolates, 50% were inhibited at 1 microgram of CHX per ml, 90% were inhibited at 2.0 micrograms/ml, and all were inhibited at 4.0 micrograms/ml. The MICs for Streptococcus mutans isolates (serotypes c, e, and f) were lower than those for Streptococcus sobrinus isolates (serotypes d and g). In some subjects, the MICs for isolates of the same serotype were different. This phenomenon was studied by ribotyping isolates (n = 45) from selected subjects (n = 7). It was found that if there were intraindividual differences in the MICs for isolates of the same serotype, then the ribotypes of these isolates were different. In order to decrease the mutans streptococcal infection risk for children, 24 mothers (test group) brushed their teeth periodically with a gel that contained 0.3% CHX digluconate and 0.2% NaF, pH 5.8, between the second and third sampling occasions. The gel was used twice a day for the first 10 days of each month. Development of resistant strains during CHX-NaF gel use was not detected. The serotype distribution of isolates from the test group after 1 year of periodic CHX-NaF gel use did not differ from that at baseline. Periodic CHX-NaF gel brushing did not lead to lower salivary mutans streptococcal counts.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Grönroos
- Department of Pedodontics and Orthodontics, University of Helsinki, Finland
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