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Czékus Z, Martics A, Pollák B, Kukri A, Tari I, Ördög A, Poór P. The local and systemic accumulation of ethylene determines the rapid defence responses induced by flg22 in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.). JOURNAL OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 287:154041. [PMID: 37339571 DOI: 10.1016/j.jplph.2023.154041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Revised: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/22/2023]
Abstract
Plant defence responses induced by the bacterial elicitor flg22 are highly dependent on phytohormones, including gaseous ethylene (ET). While the regulatory role of ET in local defence responses to flg22 exposure has been demonstrated, its contribution to the induction of systemic responses is not clearly understood. For this consideration, we examined the effects of different ET modulators on the flg22-induced local and systemic defence progression. In our experiments, ET biosynthesis inhibitor aminoethoxyvinyl glycine (AVG) or ET receptor blocker silver thiosulphate (STS) were applied 1 h before flg22 treatments and 1 h later the rapid local and systemic responses were detected in the leaves of intact tomato plants (Solanum lycopersicum L.). Based on our results, AVG not only diminished the flg22-induced ET accumulation locally, but also in the younger leaves confirming the role of ET in the whole-plant expanding defence progression. This increase in ET emission was accompanied by increased local expression of SlACO1, which was reduced by AVG and STS. Local ET biosynthesis upon flg22 treatment was shown to positively regulate local and systemic superoxide (O2.-) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) production, which in turn could contribute to ET accumulation in younger leaves. Confirming the role of ET in flg22-induced rapid defence responses, application of AVG reduced local and systemic ET, O2.- and H2O2 production, whereas STS reduced it primarily in the younger leaves. Interestingly, in addition to flg22, AVG and STS induced stomatal closure alone at whole-plant level, however in the case of combined treatments together with flg22 both ET modulators reduced the rate of stomatal closure in the older- and younger leaves as well. These results demonstrate that both local and systemic ET production in sufficient amounts and active ET signalling are essential for the development of flg22-induced rapid local and systemic defence responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zalán Czékus
- Department of Plant Biology, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Közép Fasor 52, H-6726, Szeged, Hungary.
| | - Atina Martics
- Department of Plant Biology, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Közép Fasor 52, H-6726, Szeged, Hungary; Doctoral School of Biology, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary.
| | - Boglárka Pollák
- Department of Plant Biology, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Közép Fasor 52, H-6726, Szeged, Hungary.
| | - András Kukri
- Department of Plant Biology, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Közép Fasor 52, H-6726, Szeged, Hungary; Doctoral School of Biology, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary.
| | - Irma Tari
- Department of Plant Biology, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Közép Fasor 52, H-6726, Szeged, Hungary.
| | - Attila Ördög
- Department of Plant Biology, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Közép Fasor 52, H-6726, Szeged, Hungary.
| | - Péter Poór
- Department of Plant Biology, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, Közép Fasor 52, H-6726, Szeged, Hungary.
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Nascimento FX, Rossi MJ, Glick BR. Ethylene and 1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) in Plant-Bacterial Interactions. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2018; 9:114. [PMID: 29520283 PMCID: PMC5827301 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2018.00114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2017] [Accepted: 01/22/2018] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Ethylene and its precursor 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) actively participate in plant developmental, defense and symbiotic programs. In this sense, ethylene and ACC play a central role in the regulation of bacterial colonization (rhizospheric, endophytic, and phyllospheric) by the modulation of plant immune responses and symbiotic programs, as well as by modulating several developmental processes, such as root elongation. Plant-associated bacterial communities impact plant growth and development, both negatively (pathogens) and positively (plant-growth promoting and symbiotic bacteria). Some members of the plant-associated bacterial community possess the ability to modulate plant ACC and ethylene levels and, subsequently, modify plant defense responses, symbiotic programs and overall plant development. In this work, we review and discuss the role of ethylene and ACC in several aspects of plant-bacterial interactions. Understanding the impact of ethylene and ACC in both the plant host and its associated bacterial community is key to the development of new strategies aimed at increased plant growth and protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco X. Nascimento
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil
| | - Márcio J. Rossi
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil
| | - Bernard R. Glick
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
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Berkowitz DB, Charette BD, Karukurichi KR, McFadden JM. α-Vinylic Amino Acids: Occurrence, Asymmetric Synthesis and Biochemical Mechanisms. TETRAHEDRON, ASYMMETRY 2006; 17:869-882. [PMID: 29977107 PMCID: PMC6029878 DOI: 10.1016/j.tetasy.2006.02.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
This report presents an overview of the family of naturally occurring 'vinylic' amino acids, namely those that feature a C-C double bond directly attached to the α-carbon, along the side chain. Strategies that have been brought to bear on the stereocontrolled synthesis of these olefinic amino acids are surveyed. The mechanistic diversity by which such 'vinylic triggers' can be actuated in a PLP (pyridoxal phosphate) enzyme active site is then highlighted by discussions of vinylglycine (VG), its substituted congeners, particularly AVG [4E-(2'-aminoethoxy)vinylglycine], and a naturally occurring VG-progenitor, SMM (S-methylmethionine).
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Affiliation(s)
- David B Berkowitz
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304
| | | | | | - Jill M McFadden
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304
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Danon A, Miersch O, Felix G, Camp RGL, Apel K. Concurrent activation of cell death-regulating signaling pathways by singlet oxygen in Arabidopsis thaliana. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2005; 41:68-80. [PMID: 15610350 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2004.02276.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Upon a dark/light shift the conditional flu mutant of Arabidopsis starts to generate singlet oxygen ((1)O(2)), a non-radical reactive oxygen species that is restricted to the plastid compartment. Immediately after the shift, plants stop growing and develop necrotic lesions. We have established a protoplast system, which allows detection and characterization of the death response in flu induced by the release of (1)O(2). Vitamin B6 that quenches (1)O(2) in fungi was able to protect flu protoplasts from cell death. Blocking ethylene production was sufficient to partially inhibit the death reaction. Similarly, flu mutant seedlings expressing transgenic NahG were partially protected from the death provoked by the release of (1)O(2), indicating a requirement for salicylic acid (SA) in this process, whereas in cells depleted of both, ethylene and SA, the extent of cell death was reduced to the wild-type level. The flu mutant was also crossed with the jasmonic acid (JA)-depleted mutant opr3, and with the JA, OPDA and dinor OPDA (dnOPDA)-depleted dde2-2 mutant. Analysis of the resulting double mutants revealed that in contrast to the JA-induced suppression of H(2)O(2)/superoxide-dependent cell death reported earlier, JA promotes singlet oxygen-mediated cell death in flu, whereas other oxylipins such as OPDA and dnOPDA antagonize this death-inducing activity of JA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoine Danon
- Institute of Plant Sciences, Plant Genetics, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), CH - 8092 Zürich, Switzerland
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Yamagami T, Tsuchisaka A, Yamada K, Haddon WF, Harden LA, Theologis A. Biochemical diversity among the 1-amino-cyclopropane-1-carboxylate synthase isozymes encoded by the Arabidopsis gene family. J Biol Chem 2003; 278:49102-12. [PMID: 12968022 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m308297200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 195] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
1-Amino-cyclopropane-1-carboxylate synthase (ACS, EC 4.4.1.14) is the key enzyme in the ethylene biosynthetic pathway in plants. The completion of the Arabidopsis genome sequence revealed the presence of twelve putative ACS genes, ACS1-12, dispersed among five chromosomes. ACS1-5 have been previously characterized. However, ACS1 is enzymatically inactive whereas ACS3 is a pseudogene. Complementation analysis with the Escherichia coli aminotransferase mutant DL39 shows that ACS10 and 12 encode aminotransferases. The remaining eight genes are authentic ACS genes and together with ACS1 constitute the Arabidopsis ACS gene family. All genes, except ACS3, are transcriptionally active and differentially expressed during Arabidopsis growth and development. IAA induces all ACS genes, except ACS7 and ACS9; CHX enhances the expression of all functional ACS genes. The ACS genes were expressed in E. coli, purified to homogeneity by affinity chromatography, and biochemically characterized. The quality of the recombinant proteins was verified by N-terminal amino acid sequence and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. The analysis shows that all ACS isozymes function as dimers and have an optimum pH, ranging between 7.3 and 8.2. Their Km values for AdoMet range from 8.3 to 45 microm, whereas their kcat values vary from 0.19 to 4.82 s-1 per monomer. Their Ki values for AVG and sinefungin vary from 0.019 to 0.80 microm and 0.15 to 12 microm, respectively. The results indicate that the Arabidopsis ACS isozymes are biochemically distinct. It is proposed that biochemically diverse ACS isozymes function in unique cellular environments for the biosynthesis of C2H4, permitting the signaling molecule to exert its unique effects in a tissue- or cell-specific fashion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeshi Yamagami
- Plant Gene Expression Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Albany, California 94710, USA
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Capitani G, McCarthy DL, Gut H, Grütter MG, Kirsch JF. Apple 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate synthase in complex with the inhibitor L-aminoethoxyvinylglycine. Evidence for a ketimine intermediate. J Biol Chem 2002; 277:49735-42. [PMID: 12228256 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m208427200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The 1.6-A crystal structure of the covalent ketimine complex of apple 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) synthase with the potent inhibitor l-aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG) is described. ACC synthase catalyzes the committed step in the biosynthesis of ethylene, a plant hormone that is responsible for the initiation of fruit ripening and for regulating many other developmental processes. AVG is widely used in plant physiology studies to inhibit the activity of ACC synthase. The structural assignment is supported by the fact that the complex absorbs maximally at 341 nm. These results are not in accord with the recently reported crystal structure of the tomato ACC synthase AVG complex, which claims that the inhibitor only associates noncovalently. The rate constant for the association of AVG with apple ACC synthase was determined by stopped-flow spectrophotometry (2.1 x 10(5) m(-1) s(-1)) and by the rate of loss of enzyme activity (1.1 x 10(5) m(-1) s(-1)). The dissociation rate constant determined by activity recovery is 2.4 x 10(-6) s(-1). Thus, the calculated K(d) value is 10-20 pm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guido Capitani
- Biochemisches Institut der Universität Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zürich, Switzerland.
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Secrist JA, Talekar RR. 5′-C-Chain-Extended Adenosine Derivatives Related to Sinefungin. Synthesis and Biological Activity. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1990. [DOI: 10.1080/07328319008045192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Khani-Oskouee S, Ramalingam K, Kalvin D, Woodard RW. Alternate substrates and inhibitors of 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid synthase. Bioorg Chem 1987. [DOI: 10.1016/0045-2068(87)90010-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Miura GA, Chiang PK. A radioisotope assay for 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid synthase: S-adenosylhomocysteine analogs as inhibitors of the enzyme involved in plant senescence. Anal Biochem 1985; 147:217-21. [PMID: 4025819 DOI: 10.1016/0003-2697(85)90030-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
A simple and rapid radioisotopic assay for 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) synthase was developed, an enzyme involved in the biosynthesis of the plant hormone ethylene. The assay utilizes an AG50W-X4(NH+4) column which separates S-adenosyl-L-[carboxyl-14C]methionine (AdoMet) from the product [14C]ACC, since the latter is not bound to the resin while [14C]AdoMet is. As opposed to other assays, this procedure measures ACC directly and does not require further conversion to ethylene. When an enzyme preparation from ripe tomato fruits (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill). was assayed, an I50 of 2.5 +/- 0.8 microM for sinefungin and a Km of 27 +/- 2 microM for AdoMet were obtained; these values were in good agreement with previous determinations made with a gas chromatographic assay. When other nucleosides were tested as inhibitors, the following order of decreasing activity was found: sinefungin greater than S-adenosylhomocysteine (AdoHcy) greater than AdoHcy sulfoxide greater than S-n-butyladenosine greater than 3-deaza-adenosylhomocysteine greater than S-isobutyladenosine greater than S-isobutyl-1-deazaadenosine. In contrast, S-isobutyl-3-deazaadenosine, S-isobutyl-7-deazaadenosine, 3-deazaadenosine, and adenosine were not inhibitory.
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