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van der Sluis R, Erasmus E. Xenobiotic/medium chain fatty acid: CoA ligase - a critical review on its role in fatty acid metabolism and the detoxification of benzoic acid and aspirin. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2016; 12:1169-79. [PMID: 27351777 DOI: 10.1080/17425255.2016.1206888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Activation of fatty acids by the acyl-CoA synthetases (ACSs) is the vital first step in fatty acid metabolism. The enzymatic and physiological characterization of the human xenobiotic/medium chain fatty acid: CoA ligases (ACSMs) has been severely neglected even though xenobiotics, such as benzoate and salicylate, are detoxified through this pathway. AREAS COVERED This review will focus on the nomenclature and substrate specificity of the human ACSM ligases; the biochemical and enzymatic characterization of ACSM1 and ACSM2B; the high sequence homology of the ACSM2 genes (ACSM2A and ACSM2B) as well as what is currently known regarding disease association studies. EXPERT OPINION Several discrepancies exist in the current literature that should be taken note of. For example, the single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) reported to be associated with aspirin metabolism and multiple risk factors of metabolic syndrome are incorrect. Kinetic data on the substrate specificity of the human ACSM ligases are non-existent and currently no data exist on the influence of SNPs on the enzyme activity of these ligases. One of the biggest obstacles currently in the field is that glycine conjugation is continuously studied as a one-step process, which means that key regulatory factors of the two individual steps remain unknown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rencia van der Sluis
- a Centre for Human Metabolomics, Biochemistry Division , North-West University , Potchefstroom , South Africa
| | - Elardus Erasmus
- a Centre for Human Metabolomics, Biochemistry Division , North-West University , Potchefstroom , South Africa
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van der Sluis R, Badenhorst CPS, Erasmus E, van Dyk E, van der Westhuizen FH, van Dijk AA. Conservation of the coding regions of the glycine N-acyltransferase gene further suggests that glycine conjugation is an essential detoxification pathway. Gene 2015; 571:126-34. [PMID: 26149650 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2015.06.081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2014] [Revised: 05/20/2015] [Accepted: 06/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Thorough investigation of the glycine conjugation pathway has been neglected. No defect of the glycine conjugation pathway has been reported and this could reflect the essential role of glycine conjugation in hepatic metabolism. Therefore, we hypothesised that genetic variation in the open reading frame (ORF) of the GLYAT gene should be low and that deleterious alleles would be found at low frequencies. This hypothesis was investigated by analysing the genetic variation of the human GLYAT ORF using data available in public databases. We also sequenced the GLYAT ORF of a small cohort of South African Afrikaner Caucasian individuals. In total, data from 1537 individuals was analysed. The two most prominent GLYAT haplotypes in all populations analysed, were S156 (70%) and T17S156 (20%). The S156C199 and S156H131 haplotypes, which have a negative effect on the enzyme activity of a recombinant human GLYAT, were detected at very low frequencies. In the Afrikaner Caucasian cohort a novel Q61L SNP occurring at a high frequency (12%) was detected. The results of this study indicated that the GLYAT ORF is highly conserved and supported the hypothesis that the glycine conjugation pathway is an essential detoxification pathway. These findings emphasise the importance of future investigations to determine the in vivo capacity of the glycine conjugation pathway for the detoxification of benzoate and other xenobiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rencia van der Sluis
- Centre for Human Metabonomics, Biochemistry Division, North-West University, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
| | - Christoffel P S Badenhorst
- Centre for Human Metabonomics, Biochemistry Division, North-West University, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
| | - Elardus Erasmus
- Centre for Human Metabonomics, Biochemistry Division, North-West University, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
| | - Etresia van Dyk
- Centre for Human Metabonomics, Biochemistry Division, North-West University, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
| | | | - Alberdina A van Dijk
- Centre for Human Metabonomics, Biochemistry Division, North-West University, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa.
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Moriwaki H, Tsujimoto Y, Shimizu M, Noda T, Warashina M, Tanaka M. Influence of sodium benzoate on the metabolism ofo-xylene in the rat. Xenobiotica 2008; 35:487-97. [PMID: 16012080 DOI: 10.1080/00498250500057476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The main metabolites of o-xylene in urine are o-methylhippuric acid, o-toluic acid, o-toluic acid glucuronide, 3,4-dimethylphenol, 3,4-dimethylphenol conjugates and o-xylylmercapturic acid. The urinary excretion of o-toluic acid, o-toluic acid conjugates and o-xylene were increased by the prior administration of sodium benzoate. Conversely, the amounts of o-methylhippuric acid, 3,4-dimethylphenol conjugates and o-xylylmercapturic acid decreased by sodium benzoate pretreatment. In addition, the urinary excretion of o-methylhippuric acid was delayed by the pretreatment. The percentages of urinary excretion of the o-xylene metabolites were substantially changed by the pretreatment with sodium benzoate. These results therefore highlight a potential interaction of an air pollutant with a food additive, an interaction that remains to be established in man.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Moriwaki
- Osaka City Institute of Public Health and Environmental Sciences, Osaka, Japan
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Levy G, Yaffe SJ. The Study of Salicylate Pharmacokinetics in Intoxicated Infants and Children. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2008. [DOI: 10.3109/15563656808990591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Lienard BM, Conejo-García A, Stolze I, Loenarz C, Oldham NJ, Ratcliffe PJ, Schofield CJ. Evaluation of aspirin metabolites as inhibitors of hypoxia-inducible factor hydroxylases. Chem Commun (Camb) 2008:6393-5. [DOI: 10.1039/b814440k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Gregus Z, Halászi E, Klaassen CD. Effect of chlorophenoxyacetic acid herbicides on glycine conjugation of benzoic acid. Xenobiotica 1999; 29:547-59. [PMID: 10426554 DOI: 10.1080/004982599238371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
1. 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T) (0.1-0.5 mmol/kg i.p.) delayed the disappearance of injected benzoate from blood and diminished the urinary excretion of the formed benzoylglycine, but elevated the blood levels of benzoylglycine in rat, suggesting that these herbicides interfere with both the formation and the renal transport of benzoylglycine. 2. Inhibition of the renal excretion of benzoylglycine by 2,4-D or 2,4,5-T (0.5 mmol/kg i.p.) was directly demonstrated in rat injected with benzoylglycine. 3. Inhibition of benzoylglycine formation from benzoic acid by 2,4-D or 2,4,5-T (0.5 mmol/kg i.p.) was directly demonstrated in renal pedicles-ligated rats injected with benzoate. 4. Neither 2,4-D nor 2,4,5-T influenced the hepatic concentrations of ATP, coenzyme A (CoA) or glycine; therefore, it is unlikely that they inhibit glycine conjugation of benzoic acid by diminishing the availability of co-substrates. 5. Although the chlorophenoxyacetic acids did not appear to be a substrate for the mitochondrial acyl-CoA synthetases, both 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T diminished the activity of benzoyl-CoA synthetase (but not that of benzoyl-CoA:glycine N-acyltransferase) in solubilized hepatic mitochondria. These findings suggest that 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T impair benzoylglycine formation in rat by inhibiting benzoyl-CoA synthetase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Gregus
- Department of Pharmacology, University Medical School of Pécs, Hungary.
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Patel DK, Ogunbona A, Notarianni LJ, Bennett PN. Depletion of plasma glycine and effect of glycine by mouth on salicylate metabolism during aspirin overdose. Hum Exp Toxicol 1990; 9:389-95. [PMID: 2271231 DOI: 10.1177/096032719000900606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
1. The metabolism of aspirin was investigated in 45 patients who had taken self-administered overdose of aspirin and were treated with fluids only, glycine, N-glycylglycine by mouth, or by sodium bicarbonate i.v. 2. The major metabolite recovered in the urine of patients treated with oral fluids, glycine or N-glycylglycine was salicyluric acid, which accounted for means of 51%, 47% and 38% of the total, respectively; salicylic acid comprised 19%, 29% and 29%. In contrast, salicylic acid (42%) was the major urinary metabolite recovered from patients treated with sodium bicarbonate. 3. Plasma glycine concentrations in healthy volunteers who had taken no aspirin remained constant through the day and were not affected by a therapeutic dose (500 mg) of aspirin. Plasma glycine was consistently lower in patients with aspirin overdose than in these healthy volunteers, suggesting depletion of available glycine. 4. Orally administered glycine and N-glycylglycine increased plasma glycine. While the fraction of total salicylate recovered as salicyluric acid was not altered, the maximum rate of excretion of salicyluric acid was higher in patients who received glycine than in the control group; there was no significant difference in the maximum rate of excretion of salicyluric acid between the group that received glycine and the group that received N-glycylglycine. 5. The data suggest that exogenous glycine increases the rate of formation of salicyluric acid in salicylate overdose.
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Affiliation(s)
- D K Patel
- Medicinal Biochemistry Department, Burroughs Wellcome Co., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
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Patel DK, Hesse A, Ogunbona A, Notarianni LJ, Bennett PN. Metabolism of aspirin after therapeutic and toxic doses. Hum Exp Toxicol 1990; 9:131-6. [PMID: 2375880 DOI: 10.1177/096032719000900302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
1 The urinary recovery of metabolites of aspirin (ASA) was studied in 45 volunteers who took a therapeutic dose (600 mg) of ASA by mouth and in 37 patients who took ASA in overdose. 2 The main metabolite recovered from the volunteers was the glycine conjugate, salicyluric acid (SUA), which accounted for 75.01 +/- 1.19% of total urinary metabolites, whereas salicylic acid (SA) accounted for 8.82 +/- 0.56%. Recovery of SUA was negatively correlated with that of SA (r = -0.8625, P less than 0.001). 3. In 24 patients with admission plasma salicylate concentrations of 240-360 mg l-1, SUA accounted for 46.66 +/- 3.22% and SA for 31.88 +/- 4.02%. 4. In 13 patients with admission plasma salicylate concentrations of 715-870 mg l-1, SUA accounted for 21.57 +/- 3.65% and SA for 64.72 +/- 4.82%. 5. Reduced excretion of salicylate as SUA was also accompanied by increased elimination as gentisic acid and salicylic acid phenolic glucuronide indicating that the unsaturated processes that lead to the formation of these metabolites contribute significantly (22-23%) to the inactivation of large doses of salicylate. 6. While the Michalis-Menten kinetics of ASA have been well demonstrated at lower doses, our findings illustrate the progressive saturation of SUA formation under conditions of increasing ASA load to toxic amounts and raise issues about the in-vivo glycine pool when ASA is taken in overdose.
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Affiliation(s)
- D K Patel
- Medicinal Biochemistry Department, Burroughs Wellcome Co., Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709
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Abstract
The metabolism of a 900 mg oral dose of aspirin has been investigated in 129 healthy volunteers. For this purpose, the 0-12 h urine was collected and analysed for the following excretion products: salicylic acid, its acyl and phenolic glucuronides, salicyluric acid, its phenolic glucuronide and gentisic acid. The total excretion of salicylate and metabolites was normally distributed within the population group studied, showing a 2.5-fold variation: a mean of 68.1% of the dose was recovered in 12 h. The excretion of salicylic acid was found to be highly variable within the study panel (1.3-31% of dose in 12 h), and was related to both urine volume and pH. Salicyluric acid was the major metabolite in the majority of the volunteers and its excretion was normally distributed amongst the study panel. The elimination of this metabolite ranged from 19.8 to 65% of the dose and was related to the total recovery of salicylate. The excretion of the two salicyl glucuronides was highly variable, ranging from 0.8 to 42% of the dose. The elimination of the glucuronides was inversely related to that of salicyluric acid. Gentisic acid and salicyluric acid phenolic glucuronide were minor metabolites of salicylate, accounting for 1 and 3% of the dose, respectively. The recovery of gentisic acid was statistically significantly greater in female subjects than in males, whilst the opposite was found for salicyluric acid and total salicylate. However, these differences were small in magnitude.
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Krauer B, Krauer F, Hytten FE. Drug disposition and pharmacokinetics in the maternal-placental-fetal unit. Pharmacol Ther 1980; 10:301-28. [PMID: 7413726 DOI: 10.1016/0163-7258(80)90085-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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Al-Ani MR, Wood SG, Lawson A. The metabolism of saddamine in man: the fate of the benzylamine moiety of saddamine. Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 1979; 4:117-9. [PMID: 488132 DOI: 10.1007/bf03189411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The metabolism of 14C-saddamine radiolabelled in the benzylamine moiety has been investigated in man after oral administration. 14C-Hippuric acid was found to be the only radiolabelled urinary metabolite, the overall amount of which was equivalent to over 95% of the dose. The time taken for elimination of 50% of the dose in the urine was approximately five hours and the corresponding value for 14C-benzylamine hydrochloride was less than one hour.
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Al-Ani MR, Wood SG, Lawson A. Comparison of the major urinary metabolites of saddamine and aspirin using thin-layer chromatography. J Chromatogr A 1978; 166:626-31. [PMID: 748364 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(00)95652-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Ellard GA, Gammon PT. Pharmacokinetics of isoniazid metabolism in man. JOURNAL OF PHARMACOKINETICS AND BIOPHARMACEUTICS 1976; 4:83-113. [PMID: 950592 DOI: 10.1007/bf01086149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Smyth RD, Polk A, Diamond J, Burns BJ, Herczeg T. Metabolism of 2-(p-aminobenzoyloxy)benzoic acid in man. Xenobiotica 1974; 4:383-91. [PMID: 4842018 DOI: 10.3109/00498257409052114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Wagner JG. A modern view of pharmacokinetics. JOURNAL OF PHARMACOKINETICS AND BIOPHARMACEUTICS 1973; 1:363-401. [PMID: 4599379 DOI: 10.1007/bf01059664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Gorodischer R, Krasner J, Yaffe SJ. Hippuric acid synthesizing system during development. Kinetic studies and inhibition with salicylic acid. Biochem Pharmacol 1971; 20:67-72. [PMID: 5570642 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(71)90472-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Amsel LP, Levy G. Drug biotransformation interactions in man. II. A pharmacokinetic study of the simultaneous conjugation of benzoic and salicylic acids with glycine. J Pharm Sci 1969; 58:321-6. [PMID: 5782024 DOI: 10.1002/jps.2600580307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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Levy G, Procknal JA. Drug biotransformation interactions in man. I. Mutual inhibition in glucuronide formation of salicylic acid and salicylamide in man. J Pharm Sci 1968; 57:1330-5. [PMID: 5677334 DOI: 10.1002/jps.2600570811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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Riegelman S, Loo JC, Rowland M. Shortcomings in pharmacokinetic analysis by conceiving the body to exhibit properties of a single compartment. J Pharm Sci 1968; 57:117-23. [PMID: 5652110 DOI: 10.1002/jps.2600570123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 320] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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Levy G, Weintraub L, Matsuzawa T, Oles SR. Absorption, metabolism and excretion of salicylic phenolic glucuronide in rats. J Pharm Sci 1966; 55:1319-20. [PMID: 5969796 DOI: 10.1002/jps.2600551135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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