Abnormal activity of polymodal receptors induced by clioquinol (5-chloro-7-iodo-8-hydroxyquinoline)

Clioquinol and pyrithione activate TRPA1 by increasing intracellular Zn2+

The antifungal and amoebicidal drug clioquinol (CQ) was withdrawn from the market when it was linked to an epidemic of subacute myelo-optico-neuropathy (SMON). Clioquinol exerts its anti-parasitic actions by acting as a Cu/Zn chelator and ionophore. Here we show that local injections of CQ produce mechanical hyperalgesia and cold hypersensitivity through a mechanism involving TRPA1 in mice. We also show that CQ activates TRPA1 in a Zn(2+)-dependent manner. Using a different Zn(2+)-ionophore, zinc pyrithione (ZnPy), we demonstrate that low, nanomolar concentrations of intracellular Zn(2+) ([Zn(2+)](i)) stimulate TRPA1. Direct application of Zn(2+) to the intracellular face of excised, inside-out patches activates TRPA1 with an EC(50) value of 7.5 +/- 1 nM. TRPA1 is expressed in a subpopulation of nociceptive dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons, where it acts as a sensory receptor for environmental irritants and oxidants. Using cultured DRG neurons from wild-type and TRPA1-deficient mice, we demonstrate that TRPA1 is the principal excitatory receptor for increased [Zn(2+)](i) in DRG neurons. In conclusion, we have discovered that TRPA1 acts a sensor of intracellular Zn(2+), and that Zn(2+) ionophores, such as CQ and ZnPy, activate TRPA1 by increasing [Zn(2+)](i). We also demonstrate that CQ-evoked mechanical hyperalgesia and cold allodynia require TRPA1 in vivo.

The effects of bradykinin agonists and antagonists on visceral polymodal receptor activities

The endogenous algesic agent bradykinin (BK) is a consistent stimulant for the polymodal receptor, a type of nociceptor. Two types of BK receptor, B1 and B2, have been proposed in smooth muscles by Regoli. The type of BK receptor mediating the BK response of the polymodal receptor was studied using 3 BK analogs, des-Arg9-BK (a B1 agonist), des-Arg9-[Leu8]-BK (a B1 antagonist), and [Thi5,8, D-Phe7]-BK (a B2 antagonist). Single- and multi-fiber activities from testicular polymodal receptors were recorded in vitro using testis-spermatic nerve preparations excised from dogs anesthetized with pentobarbital (30 mg/kg, i.v.). Neither des-Arg9-BK, des-Arg9-[Leu8]-BK, nor [Thi5,8,D-Phe7]-BK induced discharges in nociceptors at concentrations up to 9.4 x 10(-6) M. Des-Arg9-[Leu8]-BK (up to 9.4 x 10(-6) M) did not suppress responses to BK (9.4 x 10(-8 approximately -9) M), whereas [Thi5,8,D-Phe7]-BK (above 2.8 x 10(-7) M) suppressed the BK response in a concentration-dependent manner and shifted the concentration-response curve of BK to the right. It was ascertained that [Thi5,8,D-Phe7]-BK had no effect on responses to noxious heat and high K+ solution. These results suggest that the BK receptor mediating the nociceptor response to BK is of the B2 type.

Facilitatory effects of opioids on the discharges of visceral nociceptors

Effects of opioids on the activity of visceral nociceptors were tested using the in vitro testis-spermatic nerve preparations excised from deeply anesthetized dogs. Morphine, DADLE and dynorphin (10 microM) elicited discharges of polymodal receptors in approximately 1/3 of the tested cases. The incidence of the excitatory response of morphine increased at higher concentrations. The excitatory responses were quite variable among preparations and showed a strong tendency for tachyphylaxis. Similar increases in discharges were elicited when morphine was applied during the steady state of the response evoked by bradykinin (BK) or BK mixed with prostaglandin E2. Pretreatment of morphine for 5 min significantly augmented the subsequent BK responses for 30 min or more. Naloxone per se induced neither excitation nor augmentation of the subsequent BK response, however it reversed the augmenting effect of morphine on BK response. In contrast with previous reports proposing peripheral analgesic effects of opioids, suppressive effects on nociceptors were never observed in the present experiment. Peripheral effects of opioids were discussed.

Effects of prostaglandins and other putative chemical intermediaries on the activity of canine testicular polymodal receptors studied in vitro

An in vitro testis-superior spermatic nerve preparation was used to evaluate the effects of chemical agents applied in the bathing solution. Both directly evoked discharges and responses to algesic solutions [bradykinin (BK) 9 X 10(-8) M, hypertonic saline 616 mM and high K+ solution 60 mM] of polymodal receptors were studied. Prostaglandin (PG)-E2 (1.4 X 10(-6)-1.4 X 10(-5) M) and serotonin (5-HT) (1.1 X 10(-6) to 1.4 X 10(-4) M) had only a weak excitatory effect. However, test responses to algesic substances were regularly greatly increased by PG-E2, -I2 and 5-HT. Concentrations of PG-E2 of 1.4 X 10(-8) M or greater augmented BK responses; higher concentrations and/or longer applications were needed to enhance responses to algesic salt solutions. Effective concentrations for the PGs and 5-HT were near those reported for inflamed tissues and exudate. Aspirin (ASA) (5.5 X 10(-4) M or greater, for more than 4 min) suppressed the responses to BK but not those evoked by hypertonic saline. The ASA effect on the BK response was largely restored by an addition of PG-E2. Substance P also had a weak excitatory effect on some polymodal receptors, but no significant enhancement of the response to BK was noted. These results further support a role of polymodal receptors in transmitting nociceptive information, of inflammatory origin.