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Klein DC, Bailey MJ, Carter DA, Kim JS, Shi Q, Ho AK, Chik CL, Gaildrat P, Morin F, Ganguly S, Rath MF, Møller M, Sugden D, Rangel ZG, Munson PJ, Weller JL, Coon SL. Pineal function: impact of microarray analysis. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2010; 314:170-83. [PMID: 19622385 PMCID: PMC3138125 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2009.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2009] [Accepted: 07/14/2009] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Microarray analysis has provided a new understanding of pineal function by identifying genes that are highly expressed in this tissue relative to other tissues and also by identifying over 600 genes that are expressed on a 24-h schedule. This effort has highlighted surprising similarity to the retina and has provided reason to explore new avenues of study including intracellular signaling, signal transduction, transcriptional cascades, thyroid/retinoic acid hormone signaling, metal biology, RNA splicing, and the role the pineal gland plays in the immune/inflammation response. The new foundation that microarray analysis has provided will broadly support future research on pineal function.
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Affiliation(s)
- David C Klein
- Section on Neuroendocrinology, Program on Developmental Endocrinology and Genetics, NICHD, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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2
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Kalsbeek A, Buijs RM, van Schaik R, Kaptein E, Visser TJ, Doulabi BZ, Fliers E. Daily variations in type II iodothyronine deiodinase activity in the rat brain as controlled by the biological clock. Endocrinology 2005; 146:1418-27. [PMID: 15550511 DOI: 10.1210/en.2004-0763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Type II deiodinase (D2) plays a key role in regulating thyroid hormone-dependent processes in, among others, the central nervous system (CNS) by accelerating the intracellular conversion of T4 into active T3. Just like the well-known daily rhythm of the hormones of the hypothalamo-pituitary-thyroid axis, D2 activity also appears to show daily variations. However, the mechanisms involved in generating these daily variations, especially in the CNS, are not known. Therefore, we decided to investigate the role the master biological clock, located in the hypothalamus, plays with respect to D2 activity in the rat CNS as well as the role of one of its main hormonal outputs, i.e. plasma corticosterone. D2 activity showed a significant daily rhythm in the pineal and pituitary gland as well as hypothalamic and cortical brain tissue, albeit with a different timing of its acrophase in the different tissues. Ablation of the biological clock abolished the daily variations of D2 activity in all four tissues studied. The main effect of the knockout of the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) was a reduction of nocturnal peak levels in D2 activity. Moreover, contrary to previous observations in SCN-intact animals, in SCN-lesioned animals, the decreased levels of D2 activity are accompanied by decreased plasma levels of the thyroid hormones, suggesting that the SCN separately stimulates D2 activity as well as the hypothalamo-pituitary-thyroid axis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andries Kalsbeek
- Netherlands Institute for Brain Research, Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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Kamiya Y, Murakami M, Araki O, Hosoi Y, Ogiwara T, Mizuma H, Mori M. Pretranslational regulation of rhythmic type II iodothyronine deiodinase expression by beta-adrenergic mechanism in the rat pineal gland. Endocrinology 1999; 140:1272-8. [PMID: 10067853 DOI: 10.1210/endo.140.3.6594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
It has been demonstrated that type II iodothyronine deiodinase is present in rat pineal gland, and the deiodinase activity markedly increases during the hours of darkness, primarily through beta-adrenergic mechanism. We have studied the relationship between pineal type II iodothyronine deiodinase messenger RNA (mRNA) and the deiodinase activity to elucidate the mechanisms involved in the nocturnal rise in pineal deiodinase activity. Northern analysis has demonstrated that type II iodothyronine deiodinase mRNA is expressed in rat pineal gland, and the mRNA markedly increases during the hours of darkness. The nocturnal increase in pineal type II iodothyronine deiodinase activity is preceded by the increase in its mRNA. Daytime isoproterenol administration resulted in a rapid increase in pineal type II iodothyronine deiodinase mRNA followed by the increase in deiodinase activity. Propranolol treatment, bilateral superior cervical ganglionectomy, or constant light exposure significantly suppressed the nocturnal rise in type II iodothyronine deiodinase mRNA as well as the deiodinase activity. Moreover, isoproterenol or (Bu)2AMP stimulated type II iodothyronine deiodinase mRNA and the deiodinase activity in cultured rat pineal glands. These results suggest that the rhythmic change in pineal type II iodothyronine deiodinase activity is regulated at least in part at the pretranslational level by a beta-adrenergic mechanism transmitted through superior cervical ganglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Kamiya
- First Department of Internal Medicine, Gunma University School of Medicine, Maebashi, Japan
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Murakami M, Hosoi Y, Negishi T, Kamiya Y, Ogiwara T, Mizuma H, Yamada M, Iriuchijima T, Mori M. Expression and nocturnal increase of type II iodothyronine deiodinase mRNA in rat pineal gland. Neurosci Lett 1997; 227:65-7. [PMID: 9178860 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-3940(97)00298-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
It has been demonstrated that thyroxine deiodinating activity is present in rat pineal gland, and its activity increases significantly during the night time. We have studied whether mRNA for type II iodothyronine deiodinase is expressed in rat pineal gland and whether the nocturnal rise of pineal T4 deiodinating activity is due to the change in type II iodothyronine deiodinase mRNA level. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction amplification and Northern blot analyses have demonstrated that type II iodothyronine deiodinase mRNA is expressed in rat pineal gland and its mRNA level increases markedly at midnight. These results suggest that the nocturnal rise in pineal T4 deiodinating activity is due to the change in type II iodothyronine deiodinase mRNA level.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Murakami
- First Department of Internal Medicine, Gunma University School of Medicine, Maebashi, Japan
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Osuna C, Orta JM, Rubio A, Molinero P, Guerrero JM. Thyroxine type II 5'-deiodinase activity in pineal and Harderian gland is enhanced by hypothyroidism but is independent of serum thyroxine concentrations during hyperthyroidism. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1993; 25:1041-6. [PMID: 8365546 DOI: 10.1016/0020-711x(93)90119-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
1. This paper studies the effect of thyroid status on 5'-D activity in pineal gland, Harderian gland, brown adipose tissue (BAT), pituitary gland, brain frontal cortex (BFC), and cerebellum. 2. Hypothyroidism clearly increased diurnal 5'-D activity in Harderian gland, BAT, pituitary gland, BFC, and cerebellum. In pineal gland, diurnal values of 5'-D activity were not affected by hypothyroidism. 3. Hypothyroidism in adult rats clearly enhanced nocturnal increase of 5'-D activity in pineal and Harderian gland. Congenital hypothyroidism also enhanced the nocturnal increase of 5'-D activity in pineal gland. 4. Hyperthyroidism inhibited 5'-D activity in pituitary gland, BFC, and cerebellum. A small inhibition, although significant, was found in BAT. 5. In pineal and Harderian gland, hyperthyroidism did not inhibit either the basal diurnal values of the enzyme or the nocturnal increase of its activity. 6. Results suggest that, in tissues where 5'D-activity is regulated by adrenergic mechanisms, mostly pineal gland and Harderian gland, the enzyme activity is independent of serum T4 concentrations during hyperthyroidism.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Osuna
- University of Seville School of Medicine, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Spain
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Jimenez J, Osuna C, Reiter RJ, Rubio A, Guerrero JM. Adrenalectomy or superior cervical ganglionectomy modifies the nocturnal increase in rat pineal type II thyroxine 5'-deiodinase. Chronobiol Int 1993; 10:87-93. [PMID: 8500193 DOI: 10.1080/07420529309059696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
We studied the response of type II thyroxine 5'-deiodinase (5'-D) activity to superior cervical ganglionectomy (SCGX) or adrenalectomy (ADX) in the rat pineal gland and other tissues. The results show that no difference was found between controls and SCGX animals during the day, but at night, SCGX modified the day-night cycle of 5'-D activity in the pineal gland. In the same way, ADX did not modify the enzyme activity during the day in pineal gland, harderian gland, hypophysis, or brain frontal cortex (BFC). However, in brown adipose tissue (BAT), where thyroid hormone metabolism is extremely dependent on alpha 1-adrenergic stimulation by blood circulating catecholamines, 5'-D activity is significantly decreased. At the time point of maximal pineal 5'-D activity in controls (02:00 h), ADX animals did not exhibit the nocturnal increase of the enzyme activity that occurs with control rats. Moreover, at 04:00 h ADX did not show any effect on pineal 5'-D activity. These results seem to suggest that the presence of catecholamines in blood is necessary for the pineal 5'-D activity nocturnal increase, although it does not participate in regulating the basal enzyme activity during the day.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Jimenez
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Seville School of Medicine, Spain
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Molinero P, Guerrero JM. Vasoactive intestinal peptide stimulates type II thyroxine 5'-deiodinase and N-acetyltransferase activities in dispersed pineal cells of euthyroid and hypothyroid rats. Neurosci Lett 1993; 151:130-3. [PMID: 8506071 DOI: 10.1016/0304-3940(93)90003-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The effect of vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) on thyroxine type II 5'-deiodinase (5'-D) and N-acetyltransferase (NAT) activities were studied using pineal cells of euthyroid and hypothyroid rats. VIP activated 5'-D activity in a dose-dependent manner in both euthyroid and hypothyroid animals. However, basal and VIP stimulated activity was higher in pinealocytes from hypothyroid than in cells from euthyroid rats. VIP was also able to stimulate NAT activity but hypothyroidism did not induce modifications in its activity. Both 5'-D and NAT activities were stimulated not only by VIP, but also by isoproterenol, a beta-adrenergic receptor agonist, and forskolin, a potent activator of adenylate cyclase activity. The results suggest that VIP may be involved in the physiological regulation of pineal 5'-D activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Molinero
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Seville School of Medicine, Spain
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Rubio A, Menendez-Pelaez A, Reiter RJ. Thyroxine 5'-deiodinase type II activity in chick pineal and Harderian gland: nyctohemeral rhythmicity and its regulation by noradrenergic input. J Pineal Res 1993; 14:53-9. [PMID: 8391574 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-079x.1993.tb00485.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Circadian rhythmicity of type II thyroxine 5'-deiodinase (5'-D) activity was studied in the pineal gland and Harderian glands of chicks. Only Harderian 5'-D activity showed a nyctohemeral rhythmicity with a maximal peak during the day time (1300), while no rhythm of enzyme activity was found in the pineal gland. Besides type II 5'-D activity, we found high basal levels of the type I isoenzyme in both glands; this activity was specifically suppressed by the addition of 6-n-propyl-thiouracil (PTU). However, day-night differences in Harderian 5'-D activity were maintained even after the addition of PTU. This activity was not affected for either continuous light exposure or darkness during the day. 5'-D activity seems to be regulated by the noradrenergic input, since the enzymatic activity was stimulated by a beta-adrenergic agonist, isoproterenol, and by the alpha-adrenergic agonist, phenylephrine, in both pineal and Harderian glands. Both drugs affected 5'-D activity in the Harderian gland by stimulating the enzyme activity over basal levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Rubio
- University of Texas Health Science Center, Department of Cellular and Structural Biology, San Antonio 78284-7762
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Osuna C, Jimenez J, Reiter RJ, Rubio A, Guerrero JM. Adrenergic regulation of type II 5'-deiodinase circadian rhythm in rat harderian gland. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY 1992; 263:E884-9. [PMID: 1443121 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.1992.263.5.e884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
This paper reports on the regulation of the nyctohemeral profile of type II thyroxine 5'-deiodinase (T45'D) activity in the rat harderian gland. Harderian gland T45'D activity exhibits a nighttime increase with maximal values late in the dark period (0200-0400 h) and basal values during the daytime. The nocturnal rise of the deiodinating activity was prevented by either exposure of animals to light at night, injecting the animals with both alpha- and beta-adrenergic receptor blockers, or bilateral superior cervical ganglionectomy (SCGx). However, adrenalectomy did not affet the enzyme activity in the harderian gland. In brown adipose tissue (BAT), where thyroid hormone metabolism is extremely dependent on alpha 1-adrenergic stimulation by blood-circulating catecholamines, adrenalectomy significantly decreased T45'D activity. Deiodinating activities in brain frontal cortex (BFC) and pituitary gland were unaffected by adrenalectomy. Unlike in the harderian gland, SCGx did not modify the T45'D activity in either BAT, BFC, or the pituitary gland. The results suggest that elevated plasma catecholamines are not required for harderian gland T45'D activation and that the nyctohemeral profile of the enzyme activity in the harderian gland is dependent on the noradrenergic input from the superior cervical ganglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Osuna
- University of Seville School of Medicine, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Spain
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Guerrero JM, Reiter RJ. Iodothyronine 5'-deiodinating activity in the pineal gland. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1992; 24:1513-23. [PMID: 1397480 DOI: 10.1016/0020-711x(92)90169-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
1. The presence of an iodothyronine 5'-deiodinating activity has been described in the pineal gland of various rodents, and it has been identified as a type II 5'-deiodinase isoenzyme since it is relatively insensitive to inhibition by propylthiouracil and its activity increases during hypothyroidism. 2. 5'-Deiodinase activity in the rat pineal gland follows a nyctohemeral profile, exhibiting basal values during the day and maximal values at night. The nocturnal increase is dependent on the noradrenergic input from the superior cervical ganglia, and both in vivo and in vitro studies show that beta-adrenergic receptors are primarily involved in the activation of the enzyme. 3. Day-night differences in rat pineal 5'-deiodinase activity are found beginning at 2 weeks of age, with rhythms increasing in amplitude until maximal differences are reached in adult animals. During the maturation of the rhythm, changes in regulation of enzyme activation are observed. Thus, during the first 2-3 weeks of age, alpha-adrenergic receptors appear to be as important as beta-adrenergic receptors in regulating the deiodinating activity of the pineal. However, in adults, no role of alpha-adrenergic receptors has been described. 4. Although regulation of 5'-deiodinase activity in the pineal gland is well established, few data are available concerning the physiological significance of the enzyme in the gland. Of the studies that have been performed, those attempting to demonstrate a relationship between pineal 5'-deiodinase activity and other pineal rhythms, e.g. those of melatonin production and N-acetyltransferase activity, indicates that the latter rhythms do not rely on the cyclic production of T3. The alternate possibility that the 5'D rhythm depends on the cyclic production of melatonin remains to be examined.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Guerrero
- University of Seville School of Medicine, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Spain
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12
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Rubio A, Osuna C, Lopez-Gonzalez MA, Reiter RJ, Guerrero JM. Nyctohemeral rhythmicity of type II thyroxine 5'-deiodinase activity in the pineal gland but not in the Harderian gland of the Swiss mouse. Biosci Rep 1991; 11:111-7. [PMID: 1868171 DOI: 10.1007/bf01119198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Type II thyroxine 5'-deiodinase (5'-D) activity in both pineal and Harderian glands of the Swiss mouse was studied. Pineal 5'-D activity exhibited a nyctohemeral profile with a maximal peak value at 05.00 h, which coincides with that for pineal melatonin production. However, no rhythm of 5'-D activity in the Harderian gland could be found. In pineal gland, light at night inhibited the nocturnal increase in 5'-D activity, while isoproterenol, a beta-adrenergic agonist, could not stimulate the enzyme. In the Harderian gland, neither darkness, nor light or night, or isoproterenol were capable of modifying basal values of 5'-D activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Rubio
- University of Seville School of Medicine, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Spain
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Rubio A, Guerrero JM, Gonzalez MA, López-Gonzalez MA, Osuna C. Beta- and alpha-adrenergic receptors are involved in regulating type II thyroxine 5'-deiodinase activity in the rat Harderian gland. Life Sci 1991; 49:1523-30. [PMID: 1658514 DOI: 10.1016/0024-3205(91)90324-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The role of alpha- and beta-adrenergic receptors in regulation of rat Harderian gland type II thyroxine 5'-deiodinase (5'-D) activity was investigated. Our results show that isoproterenol, a beta-adrenergic agonist, and phenylephrine, an alpha-adrenergic agonist, elicited increases in Harderian gland 5'-D activity. The activation was dependent on the time and the dose of the drug. Other adrenergic agonists, i.e., norepinephrine, methoxamine or terbutaline, also clearly increased the enzyme activity. Moreover, administration of propranolol, a beta-adrenergic blocker, or prazosin, an alpha-adrenergic blocker, completely prevented the activation of the enzyme induced by norepinephrine. Results show a clear regulation by adrenergic mechanisms of 5'-D activity in the rat Harderian gland, where alpha- and beta-adrenergic receptors appear to be involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Rubio
- University of Seville School of Medicine, Department of Medical Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Spain
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Guerrero JM, Santana C, Reiter RJ. Type II thyroxine 5'-deiodinase activity in the rat brown adipose tissue, pineal gland, Harderian gland, and cerebral cortex: effect of acute cold exposure and lack of relationship to pineal melatonin synthesis. J Pineal Res 1990; 9:159-66. [PMID: 2277326 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-079x.1990.tb00704.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The effect of acute cold exposure for 6 hours on nocturnal type II thyroxine 5'-deiodinase (5'-D) activity was studied in brown adipose tissue (BAT), Harderian gland, cerebral cortex, and pineal gland of the rat. Moreover, the effect of iopanoic acid (IOP), a potent inhibitor of 5'-D activity, on both pineal N-acetyltransferase (NAT) activity and melatonin content in rats maintained in a cold environment was also examined. Results show that acute cold exposure significantly increases 5'-D activity in BAT but not in either the pineal gland, Harderian gland, or cerebral cortex. In all tissues, the injection of IOP reduced dramatically 5'-D activity, while exposure of the animals to light at night reduced 5'-D activity in pineal gland but not in either the Harderian gland or BAT while light exposure at night increased cerebrocortical 5'-D activity. Cold exposure did not change either pineal NAT activity or the melatonin content of the gland. Finally, when pineal 5'-D activity was inhibited by IOP treatment, neither nocturnal pineal NAT activity nor melatonin content was affected.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Guerrero
- Department of Cellular and Structural Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio 78284-7762
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Osuna C, Rubio A, Goberna R, Guerrero JM. Ontogeny of type II thyroxine 5'-deiodinase, N-acetyltransferase, and hydroxyindole-O-methyltransferase activities in the rat Harderian gland. Life Sci 1990; 46:1945-51. [PMID: 2362550 DOI: 10.1016/0024-3205(90)90510-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The ontogeny and regulation by isoproterenol of type II thyroxine 5'-deiodinase, N-acetyltransferase, and hydroxyindole-O-methyltransferase activities were studied in the rat Harderian gland. Both 5'-deiodinase and N-acetyltransferase activities exhibited maximal values at the first week of age. These activities gradually decreased till the fourth week. However, hydroxyindole-O-methyltransferase activity did not change during the period of time studied. Neither the different killing times (1600 or 0200 h) nor the photoperiod regimens (darkness or light exposure at night) modified the enzyme activities. On the other hand, isoproterenol, a beta-adrenergic agonist, could not to stimulate 5'-deiodinase at first week of life. Nevertheless, while basal 5'-deiodinase activity was diminishing during development, the enzyme was becoming sensitive to the action of isoproterenol. Thus, isoproterenol elicited increases in Harderian gland 5'-deiodinase activity in rats older than two weeks. However, both N-acetyltransferase and hydroxyindole-O-methyltransferase activities were not affected by isoproterenol treatment in either week studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Osuna
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, University of Seville, Spain
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