Is soft tissue expansion in lower limb reconstruction a legitimate option?

External Tissue Expansion in Complex Extremity Reconstruction

Skin grafting and flap-based reconstruction have been the conventional treatments for complex extremity wounds. However, these methods can be associated with relatively high complication rates and involve increasing levels of complexity. External tissue expansion has recently emerged as an attractive alternative to its conventional counterparts. It is a technically simple and low-morbidity technique for complex wound reconstruction. This article provides a review of internal and external tissue expansion with a focus on the evolution, indications, and recent successes of external expansion for soft tissue coverage.

Control of mouse limb initiation and antero-posterior patterning by Meis transcription factors

Meis1 and Meis2 are homeodomain transcription factors that regulate organogenesis through cooperation with Hox proteins. Elimination of Meis genes after limb induction has shown their role in limb proximo-distal patterning; however, limb development in the complete absence of Meis function has not been studied. Here, we report that Meis1/2 inactivation in the lateral plate mesoderm of mouse embryos leads to limb agenesis. Meis and Tbx factors converge in this function, extensively co-binding with Tbx to genomic sites and co-regulating enhancers of Fgf10, a critical factor in limb initiation. Limbs with three deleted Meis alleles show proximal-specific skeletal hypoplasia and agenesis of posterior skeletal elements. This failure in posterior specification results from an early role of Meis factors in establishing the limb antero-posterior prepattern required for Shh activation. Our results demonstrate roles for Meis transcription factors in early limb development and identify their involvement in previously undescribed interaction networks that regulate organogenesis.

Tissue expanders with a focus on extremity reconstruction

INTRODUCTION

Acute traumatic or surgical wounds that cannot be primarily closed often cause substantial morbidity and mortality. This often leads to increased costs from higher material expenses, more involved nursing care, and longer hospital stays. Advancements in soft tissue expansion has made it a popular alternative to facilitate early closure without the need for more complicated plastic surgical procedures.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, we briefly elaborate on the history and biomechanics of tissue expansion and provide comprehensive descriptions of traditional internal tissue expanders and a variety of contemporary external tissue expanders. We describe their uses, advantages, disadvantages, and clinical outcomes. The majority of articles reviewed include case series with level IV evidence. Outcome data was collected for studies after 1990 using PubMed database.

EXPERT COMMENTARY

An overall reduction in cost, time-to-wound closure, hospital length-of-stay, and infection rate may be expected with most tissue expanders. However, further studies comparing outcomes and cost-effectiveness of various expanders may be beneficial. Surgeons should be aware of the wide array of tissue expanders that are commercially available to individualize treatment based on thorough understanding of their advantages and disadvantages to optimize outcomes. We predict the use of external expanders to increase in the future and the need for more invasive procedures such as flaps to decrease.

Tissue Expansion for Severe Foot and Ankle Deformities: A 16-Year Review

Background

Tissue expansion in the lower extremity is controversial, with studies reporting complication rates as high as 83%. Few studies have looked at tissue expansion prior to orthopaedic correction of severe foot and ankle deformities, and those available are restricted to clubfoot in the pediatric population. Here, we report the largest case series on the use of tissue expanders for the reconstruction of severe foot and ankle deformity and the only report in adults.

Methods

This is a retrospective chart review of the senior author's practice over a 16-year study period. All patients over 18 years of age who underwent tissue expansion prior to definitive orthopaedic correction of a severe foot and ankle deformity were included. Patient demographics, etiology of deformity, rate of expansion, and complications were recorded. Major complications were defined as those which required surgical intervention. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics.

Results

Nineteen cases were performed on 16 patients. Our overall complication rate was 31.6% (6/19), with major complications occurring in 21.1% (4/19) of cases, and minor complications occurring in 10.5% (2/19) of cases. Despite this, 94.7% (18/19) of cases went on to receive definitive orthopaedic correction after tissue expansion. No demographic parameters were associated with occurrence of complications.

Conclusions

This represents the largest report on lower extremity tissue expansion for severe foot and ankle deformity correction. While we observed complications in 31.6% of patients, 94.7% of cases went on to receive definitive orthopaedic correction with successful primary closure.

[The complications of skin expansion in paediatrics: Diagnostic, taking over and prevention]

Skin expansion is a difficult and long process in which can occur more or less serious complications. Overall complications rates describe in the literature vary between 13 and 37%. We can categorize them in major complications, which can lead to a failure maybe even an aggravation of the anterior status, and in minor complications that do not compromise the expansion process but can alter it. The main major complications are infection, skin suffering and necrosis which can lead to prosthesis exposition, leaks and technical problems with equipment dysfunctions that may cause difficulties or a failure of the inflations. The main minor complications are hematomas, seromas, valve or tube exposition, pains with paraesthesias caused by neighbouring organs compression, pathologic and unsightly scares and can lead to an important psychological impact. These complications can be due to a precarious skin's state, a material dysfunction or unpredictable technical problems but also by an inappropriate preoperative indication or planning. The emerging of a complication, however, is not synonymous to a failure of the procedure; a satisfactory reconstruction may still be obtained in 75% of all cases. The purpose of this article is to help to identify the situations at risk of complications in order to prevent, detect and treat them early.

Uso de expansores de tecidos nos membros inferiores

OBJETIVO: A expansão tecidual é um fenômeno, que pode ser observado na gravidez e no crescimento de tumores. A expansão controlada, descrita pela primeira vez em 1957, foi aprimorada e desenvolvida em quase todas as regiões corpóreas, a partir da década de 80. A expansão tecidual, nos membros inferiores, tem se mostrado de difícil realização devido à pouca elasticidade da pele, principalmente no 1/3 inferior da perna e do pé. Ocorre ainda falta de anteparo rígido, circulação terminal, restrição das atividades físicas dos pacientes durante a fase de infiltração e maior índice de complicações, o que restringe suas indicações. O objetivo deste trabalho é descrever nossa experiência com a expansão tecidual nos membros inferiores. MÉTODO: Estudo de 24 procedimentos de expansão nos membros inferiores indicados no tratamento de hemangioma (4,2%), seqüela de poliomielite (8,3%), seqüela pósqueimadura (33,3%) e pós-trauma (54,2%). RESULTADOS: Das expansões realizadas, tivemos sucesso no resultado prévio planejado, em 19 casos (79,1%) e insucesso em quatro casos (16,7%), nos quais o resultado final foi parcial, e um caso (4,2%), com interrupção precoce da expansão, em que não se obteve qualquer resultado. CONCLUSÕES: A expansão nos membros inferiores é viável, com menor índice de complicações, desde que se faça uma seleção adequada dos pacientes e se adote uma sistematização para a colocação, período de infiltração e retirada do expansor.

Use of tissue expanders in trauma

Tissue expansion has enjoyed a wide range of clinical applications. It is an important although arguably underutilized resource in trauma reconstruction. This article aims to highlight the history, mechanism and uses of the technique in addition to the various designs of expander that are available. Importantly it addresses reconstruction of the head and neck, trunk and extremities following trauma, highlighting practical considerations as well as complications to be pre-empted.

Tissue expansion in the limbs: a comparative analysis of limb and non-limb sites

We present an 8 year retrospective case-note study of 88 patients, who underwent 113 episodes of tissue expansion for a variety of indications. Overall, 31 patients underwent 42 episodes of tissue expansion in the limbs, and 57 patients underwent 71 expansions at other sites. Although the incidence of complications was higher in the limb group (43%) than in the group undergoing expansion at other sites (27%), the overall success in completing expansion was remarkably similar in both groups (86% and 83%, respectively). The indications and contraindications for tissue expansion in our cases are presented, as is the specific management in the presence of infection or exposure. Careful case selection, proper planning and meticulous surgical technique are important in minimising complication rates and ensuring both success and salvage in the case of any mishaps.

Tissue expansion of the lower limb: complications in a cohort of 103 cases

Over 10 years we performed 103 skin-expansion procedures and placed 207 prostheses on lower limbs, using the same surgical protocol. In 83 cases (80.6%) the expansion was achieved without complications. We recorded 20 complications in all (19.4%). Major complications included sepsis, damage due to undermining, exposure of the prosthesis and necrosis of the flap in 16 cases (15.5%), resulting in complete failure of the method in five cases (4.9%). In all, nine patients had septic complications (8.7% of the patients and 45% of the complications), five had exposure of the prosthesis and two had skin necrosis after expansion. Infection and skin necrosis, which are the main causes of failure of this method, can be prevented by a strict surgical protocolcovering all stages of the procedure. Atraumatic undermining, remote and external valves, suction drains in the cavities, advancement flaps and plaster casts after surgery can help to prevent skin necrosis. A separate and remote approach for each prosthesis can prevent infection of all the prostheses and complete failure of the expansion procedure.