Monovalent ion-phosphatidylcholine interactions: an electron paramagnetic resonance study

Competing for the same space: protons and alkali ions at the interface of phospholipid bilayers

Maintaining gradients of solvated protons and alkali metal ions such as Na⁺ and K⁺ across membranes is critical for cellular function. Over the last few decades, both the interactions of protons and alkali metal ions with phospholipid membranes have been studied extensively and the reported interactions of these ions with phospholipid headgroups are very similar, yet few studies have investigated the potential interdependence between proton and alkali metal ion binding at the water-lipid interface. In this short review, we discuss the similarities between the proton-membrane and alkali ion-membrane interactions. Such interactions include cation attraction to the phosphate and carbonyl oxygens of the phospholipid headgroups that form strong lipid-ion and lipid-ion-water complexes. We also propose potential mechanisms that may modulate the affinities of these cationic species to the water-phospholipid interfacial oxygen moieties. This review aims to highlight the potential interdependence between protons and alkali metal ions at the membrane surface and encourage a more nuanced understanding of the complex nature of these biologically relevant processes.

Effect of Force Field Parameters on Sodium and Potassium Ion Binding to Dipalmitoyl Phosphatidylcholine Bilayers

The behavior of electrolytes in molecular dynamics simulations of zwitterionic phospholipid bilayers is very sensitive to the force field parameters used. Here, several 200 ns molecular dynamics of simulations of dipalmitoyl phosphotidylcholine (PC) bilayers in 0.2 M sodium or potassium chloride using various common force field parameters for the cations are presented. All employed parameter sets give a larger number of Na(+) ions than K(+) ions that bind to the lipid heads, but depending on the parameter choice quite different results are seen. A wide range of coordination numbers for the Na(+) and K(+) ions is also observed. These findings have been analyzed and compared to published experimental data. Some simulations produce aggregates of potassium chloride, indicating (in accordance with published simulations) that these force fields do not reproduce the delicate balance between salt and solvated ions. The differences between the force fields can be characterized by one single parameter, the electrostatic radius of the ion, which is correlated to σMO (M represents Na(+)/K(+)), the Lennard-Jones radius. When this parameter exceeds a certain threshold, binding to the lipid heads is no longer observed. One would, however, need more accurate experimental data to judge or rank the different force fields precisely. Still, reasons for the poor performance of some of the parameter sets are clearly demonstrated, and a quality control procedure is provided.

A quantitative analytical method to test for salt effects on giant unilamellar vesicles

Today, free-standing membranes, i.e. liposomes and vesicles, are used in a multitude of applications, e.g. as drug delivery devices and artificial cell models. Because current laboratory techniques do not allow handling of large sample sizes, systematic and quantitative studies on the impact of different effectors, e.g. electrolytes, are limited. In this work, we evaluated the Hofmeister effects of ten alkali metal halides on giant unilamellar vesicles made of palmitoyloleoylphosphatidylcholine for a large sample size by combining the highly parallel water-in-oil emulsion transfer vesicle preparation method with automatic haemocytometry. We found that this new quantitative screening method is highly reliable and consistent with previously reported results. Thus, this method may provide a significant methodological advance in analysis of effects on free-standing model membranes.

NaCl interactions with phosphatidylcholine bilayers do not alter membrane structure but induce long-range ordering of ions and water

It is generally accepted that ions interact directly with lipids in biological membranes. Decades of biophysical studies on pure lipid bilayer systems have shown that only certain types of ions, most significantly large anions and multivalent cations, can fundamentally alter the structure and dynamics of lipid bilayers. It has long been accepted that at physiological concentrations NaCl ions do not alter the physical behavior or structure of bilayers composed solely of zwitterionic phosphatidylcholine (PC) lipids. Recent X-ray scattering experiments have reaffirmed this dogma, showing that below 1 M concentration, NaCl does not significantly alter bilayer structure. However, despite this history, there is an ongoing controversy within the molecular dynamics (MD) simulation community regarding NaCl/PC interactions. In particular, the CHARMM and GROMOS force fields show dramatically different behavior, including the effect on bilayer structure, surface potential, and the ability to form stable, coordinated ion-lipid complexes. Here, using long-timescale, constant-pressure simulations under the newest version of the CHARMM force field, we find that Na⁺ and Cl⁻ associate with PC head groups in a POPC bilayer with approximately equal, though weak, affinity, and that the salt has a negligible effect on bilayer structure, consistent with earlier CHARMM results and more recent X-ray data. The results suggest that interpretation of simulations where lipids interact with charged groups of any sort, including charged proteins, must be carefully scrutinized.

Effect of monovalent ion adsorption on the electric charge of phosphatidylcholine - decylamine liposomal membranes

We examined the effect of adsorbed monovalent ions on the surface charge of phosphatidylcholine (PC) - decylamine (DA) liposomal membranes. Surface charge density values were determined from electrophoretic mobility measurements of lipid vesicles performed at various pH levels. The interaction between solution ions and the PC-DA liposomal surface was described by a six component equilibrium model. The previously determined association constants of the -PO((-)) and -N((+))(CH(3))(3) groups of PC with H(+), OH(-), Na(+) and Cl(-) ions (K (A1H), K (B1OH), K (A1Na), K (B1C1)) were used to calculate K (B2OH), and K (B2C1), the association constants of the -N((+))H(3) group of DA with OH(-) and Cl(-) ions, providing an experimental verification for the proposed model.

Effect of ions on a dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine bilayer. a molecular dynamics simulation study

The effect of physiological concentrations of different chlorides on the structure of a dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine (DPPC) bilayer has been investigated through atomistic molecular dynamics simulations. These calculations provide support to the concept that Li+, Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, and Ac3+, but not K+, bind to the lipid-head oxygens. Ion binding exhibits an influence on lipid order, area per lipid, orientation of the lipid head dipole, the charge distribution in the system, and therefore the electrostatic potential across the head-group region of the bilayer. These structural effects are sensitive to the specific characteristics of each cation, i.e., radius, charge, and coordination properties. These results provide evidence aimed at shedding some light into the apparent contradictions among different studies reported recently regarding the ordering effect of ions on zwitterionic phosphatidylcholine lipid bilayers.

Rigidification of neutral lipid bilayers in the presence of salts

We studied the influence of sodium and calcium chloride on the global and local membrane properties of fluid palmitoyl-oleoyl phosphatidylcholine bilayers, applying synchrotron small-angle x-ray diffraction, spin-labeling electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy, and differential scanning calorimetry, as well as simultaneous density and acoustic measurements. The salt concentration was varied over a wide range from 0 to 5 M. We found that NaCl leads to a continuous swelling of the bilayers, whereas the behavior of the bilayer separation dW in the presence of CaCl2 is more complex, showing an initial large dW value, which decreased upon further addition of salt and finally increased again in the high concentration regime. This can be understood by a change of balance between electrostatic and van der Waals interactions. We were further able to show that both salts lead to a significant increase of order within the lipid bilayer, leading to a decrease of bilayer elasticity and shift of main phase transition temperature. This effect is more pronounced for Ca2+, and occurs mainly in the high salt-concentration regime. Thus, we were able to reconcile previous controversies between molecular dynamics simulations and x-ray diffraction experiments regarding the effect of salts on neutral lipid bilayers.

Effect of different treatments of long-range interactions and sampling conditions in molecular dynamic simulations of rhodopsin embedded in a dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine bilayer

The present study analyzes the effect of the simulation conditions on the results of molecular dynamics simulations of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) performed with an explicit lipid bilayer. Accordingly, the present work reports the analysis of different simulations of bovine rhodopsin embedded in a dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine (DPPC) lipid bilayer using two different sampling conditions and two different approaches for the treatment of long-range electrostatic interactions. Specifically, sampling was carried out either by using the statistical ensembles NVT or NPT (constant number of atoms, a pressure of 1 atm in all directions and fixed temperature), and the electrostatic interactions were treated either by using a twin-cutoff, or the particle mesh Ewald summation method (PME). The results of the present study suggest that the use of the NPT ensemble in combination with the PME method provide more realistic simulations. The use of NPT during the equilibration avoids the need of an a priori estimation of the box dimensions, giving the correct area per lipid. However, once the system is equilibrated, the simulations are irrespective of the sampling conditions used. The use of an electrostatic cutoff induces artifacts on both lipid thickness and the ion distribution, but has no direct effect on the protein and water molecules.

Effect of Monovalent Salt on Cationic Lipid Membranes As Revealed by Molecular Dynamics Simulations

An atomic-scale understanding of cationic lipid membranes is required for development of gene delivery agents based on cationic liposomes. To address this problem, we recently performed molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of mixed lipid membranes comprised of cationic dimyristoyltrimethylammonium propane (DMTAP) and zwitterionic dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC) (Biophys. J. 2004, 86, 3461-3472). Given that salt ions are always present under physiological conditions, here we focus on the effects of monovalent salt (NaCl) on cationic (DMPC/DMTAP) membranes. Using atomistic MD simulations, we found that salt-induced changes in membranes depend strongly on their composition. When the DMTAP mole fraction is small (around 6%), the addition of monovalent salt leads to a considerable compression of the membrane and to a concurrent enhancement of the ordering of lipid acyl chains. That is accompanied by reorientation of phosphatidylcholine headgroups in the outward normal direction and slight changes in electrostatic properties. We attribute these changes to complexation of DMPC lipids with Na(+) ions which penetrate deep into the membrane and bind to the carbonyl region of the DMPC lipids. In contrast, at medium and high molar fractions of cationic DMTAP (50 and 75%) a substantial positive surface charge density of the membranes prevents the binding of Na(+) ions, making such membranes almost insensitive to monovalent salt. Finally, we compare our results to the Poisson-Boltzmann theory. With the exception of the immediate vicinity of the bilayer plane, we found excellent agreement with the theory. This is as expected since unlike in the theoretical description the surface is now structured due to its atomic scale nature.

Asymmetry of lipid bilayers induced by monovalent salt: Atomistic molecular-dynamics study

Interactions between salt ions and lipid components of biological membranes are essential for the structure, stability, and functions of the membranes. The specific ionic composition of aqueous buffers inside and outside of the cell is known to differ considerably. To model such a situation we perform atomistic molecular-dynamics (MD) simulations of a single-component phosphatidylcholine lipid bilayer which separates two aqueous reservoirs with and without NaCl salt. To implement the difference in electrolyte composition near two membrane sides, a double bilayer setup (i.e., two bilayers in a simulation box) is employed. It turns out that monovalent salt, being in contact with one leaflet only, induces a pronounced asymmetry in the structural, electrostatic, and dynamical properties of bilayer leaflets after 50 ns of MD simulations. Binding of sodium ions to the carbonyl region of the leaflet which is in contact with salt results in the formation of "Na-lipids" complexes and, correspondingly, reduces mobility of lipids of this leaflet. In turn, attractive interactions of chloride ions (mainly located in the aqueous phase close to the water-lipid interface) with choline lipid groups lead to a substantial (more vertical) reorientation of postphatidylcholine headgroups of the leaflet adjoined to salt. The difference in headgroup orientation on two sides of a bilayer, being coupled with salt-induced reorientation of water dipoles, leads to a notable asymmetry in the charge-density profiles and electrostatic potentials of bilayer constitutes of the two leaflets. Although the overall charge density of the bilayer is found to be almost insensitive to the presence of salt, a slight asymmetry in the charge distribution between the two bilayer leaflets results in a nonzero potential difference of about 85 mV between the two water phases. Thus, a transmembrane potential of the order of the membrane potential in a cell can arise without ionic charge imbalance between two aqueous compartments.

Changes in phosphatidylcholine headgroup tilt and water order induced by monovalent salts: molecular dynamics simulations

The association between monovalent salts and neutral lipid bilayers is known to influence global bilayer structural properties such as headgroup conformational fluctuations and the dipole potential. The local influence of the ions, however, has been unknown due to limited structural resolution of experimental methods. Molecular dynamics simulations are used here to elucidate local structural rearrangements upon association of a series of monovalent Na(+) salts to a palmitoyl-oleoyl-phosphatidylcholine bilayer. We observe association of all ion types in the interfacial region. Larger anions, which are meant to rationalize data regarding a Hofmeister series of anions, bind more deeply within the bilayer than either Cl(-) or Na(+). Although the simulations are able to reproduce experimentally measured quantities, the analysis is focused on local properties currently invisible to experiments, which may be critical to biological systems. As such, for all ion types, including Cl(-), we show local ion-induced perturbations to headgroup tilt, the extent and direction of which is sensitive to ion charge and size. Additionally, we report salt-induced ordering of the water well beyond the interfacial region, which may be significant in terms of hydration repulsion between stacked bilayers.

Chemical modification of low-density lipoprotein enhances the number of binding sites for divalent cations

The EPR technique with paramagnetic Mn(II) ions has been used to probe the negatively charged sites on the surface of modified low-density lipoprotein (LDL). LDL modified in five different ways exhibited increased binding capacity for divalent cations. Enhanced binding is caused by the increase in the number of 'strong' binding sites. The 'strong' sites have been identified to be the aspartic acid and/or glutamic acid carboxyl residues and the 'weak' sites are zwitter-ionic phospholipids. In native LDL the negative groups make 'bonds' with the positive lysyl residues, thus stabilizing the structure. Any deprotonation or modification of the lysine amino groups makes the LDL structure more loose and the amino acid carboxyl groups accessible to divalent cations.

Temperature- and ionic strength-induced conformational changes in the lipid head group region of liposomes as suggested by zeta potential data

Neutral liposomes composed of DMPC (dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine), DPPC (dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine) or DSPC (distearoylphosphatidylcholine) are found to exhibit non-zero zeta potentials in an electric field even when they are dispersed in solution at pH 7.4. A model for the orientation of lipid head groups is proposed to explain the observed non-zero zeta potentials. The dependence of the zeta potential on temperature and ionic strength is analyzed via this model to obtain the information on the direction of the lipid head group in the liposome surface region. The direction of the lipid head group is found to be sensitive to the temperature and the ionic strength of the medium. At low ionic strengths, the phosphatidyl groups are located at the outer portion of the head group region. At constant temperature, as the ionic strength increases, the choline group approaches the outer region of the bilayer surface while the phosphatidyl group hides behind the surface. At the phase transition temperature of the lipid, the phosphatidyl group lies in the outer-most region of the surface and the choline group is in the inner-most region.

The retention of entrapped molecules within erythrocyte ghosts during cryopreservation

In view of the interest in erythrocyte ghosts and carrier erythrocytes as potential drug delivery systems, this work was undertaken to determine conditions facilitating the retention of entrapped molecules during cryopreservation. Upon freeze-thaw treatment intact erythrocytes and erythrocyte ghosts displayed different damage profiles with respect to cryoprotectant concentration. Non-penetrating cryoprotectants showed optimum protection of intact cells at 0.4-0.5 M; this optimum was not observed with ghosts, in which damage decreased with concentration up to 1.0 M. The concentration optimum for intact cells was not abolished by oxidative or reductive treatments suggesting that its absence in ghosts is not due to altered protein-protein or protein-lipid interactions. The extent of freeze-thaw damage to ghosts was influenced by the qualitative ionic composition of a cryoprotectant-free suspending medium, with 10-12% haemolysis observed in the presence of Li+ and Mg2+ but greater than 60% for Na+, Cs+, K+ and NH4+ with increasing loss following that order. The release on freezing of entrapped haemoglobin, insulin and sucrose was found to be inversely proportional to their molecular weights.

A theoretical approach to describe monolayer-liposome lipid interaction

It is known from several studies on the interaction between membrane models that mechanisms such as fusion or lipid exchange can play an important role in the process of internalization by cells of lipid vesicles and also in the physical stability of liposomes. In this paper it is shown that a simple monolayer-liposome model can be used to simulate experimentally observed interactions between lipid vesicles and cell surfaces. From experimental data, a simple theoretical model is formulated to interpret the variation with time of surface pressure as a function of liposome concentration. The congruency of the physico-chemical hypothesis and its validity are studied and correlated with results from experimental systems.