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Drabińska N, Flynn C, Ratcliffe N, Belluomo I, Myridakis A, Gould O, Fois M, Smart A, Devine T, Costello BDL. A literature survey of all volatiles from healthy human breath and bodily fluids: the human volatilome. J Breath Res 2021; 15. [PMID: 33761469 DOI: 10.1088/1752-7163/abf1d0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
This paper comprises an updated version of the 2014 review which reported 1846 volatile organic compounds (VOCs) identified from healthy humans. In total over 900 additional VOCs have been reported since the 2014 review and the VOCs from semen have been added. The numbers of VOCs found in breath and the other bodily fluids are: blood 379, breath 1488, faeces 443, milk 290, saliva 549, semen 196, skin 623 and urine 444. Compounds were assigned CAS registry numbers and named according to a common convention where possible. The compounds have been included in a single table with the source reference(s) for each VOC, an update on our 2014 paper. VOCs have also been grouped into tables according to their chemical class or functionality to permit easy comparison. Careful use of the database is needed, as a number of the identified VOCs only have level 2-putative assignment, and only a small fraction of the reported VOCs have been validated by standards. Some clear differences are observed, for instance, a lack of esters in urine with a high number in faeces and breath. However, the lack of compounds from matrices such a semen and milk compared to breath for example could be due to the techniques used or reflect the intensity of effort e.g. there are few publications on VOCs from milk and semen compared to a large number for breath. The large number of volatiles reported from skin is partly due to the methodologies used, e.g. by collecting skin sebum (with dissolved VOCs and semi VOCs) onto glass beads or cotton pads and then heating to a high temperature to desorb VOCs. All compounds have been included as reported (unless there was a clear discrepancy between name and chemical structure), but there may be some mistaken assignations arising from the original publications, particularly for isomers. It is the authors' intention that this work will not only be a useful database of VOCs listed in the literature but will stimulate further study of VOCs from healthy individuals; for example more work is required to confirm the identification of these VOCs adhering to the principles outlined in the metabolomics standards initiative. Establishing a list of volatiles emanating from healthy individuals and increased understanding of VOC metabolic pathways is an important step for differentiating between diseases using VOCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Drabińska
- Division of Food Sciences, Institute of Animal Reproduction and Food Research of Polish Academy of Sciences, Tuwima 10, 10-747 Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Cheryl Flynn
- Centre of Research in Biosciences, University of the West of England, Frenchay Campus, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol BS16 1QY, United Kingdom
| | - Norman Ratcliffe
- Centre of Research in Biosciences, University of the West of England, Frenchay Campus, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol BS16 1QY, United Kingdom
| | - Ilaria Belluomo
- Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, St. Mary's Campus, QEQM Building, London W2 1NY, United Kingdom
| | - Antonis Myridakis
- Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, St. Mary's Campus, QEQM Building, London W2 1NY, United Kingdom
| | - Oliver Gould
- Centre of Research in Biosciences, University of the West of England, Frenchay Campus, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol BS16 1QY, United Kingdom
| | - Matteo Fois
- Centre of Research in Biosciences, University of the West of England, Frenchay Campus, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol BS16 1QY, United Kingdom
| | - Amy Smart
- Centre of Research in Biosciences, University of the West of England, Frenchay Campus, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol BS16 1QY, United Kingdom
| | - Terry Devine
- Centre of Research in Biosciences, University of the West of England, Frenchay Campus, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol BS16 1QY, United Kingdom
| | - Ben De Lacy Costello
- Centre of Research in Biosciences, University of the West of England, Frenchay Campus, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol BS16 1QY, United Kingdom
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Ratcliffe N, Wieczorek T, Drabińska N, Gould O, Osborne A, De Lacy Costello B. A mechanistic study and review of volatile products from peroxidation of unsaturated fatty acids: an aid to understanding the origins of volatile organic compounds from the human body. J Breath Res 2020; 14:034001. [PMID: 32163929 DOI: 10.1088/1752-7163/ab7f9d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The assessment of volatile compounds (VOCs) for disease diagnosis is a growing area of research. There is a need to provide hard evidence i.e. biochemical routes, to justify putative VOC biomarkers, as in many cases this remains uncertain, which weakens their authenticity. Recently reports of volatile hydrocarbons and or aldehydes in bodily fluids and breath have been attributed to oxidative stress, although as discussed here, fewer compounds have been reported than expected from a mechanistic examination. Oxidative stress can result from many disease states which produce inflammation, and a better understanding of the interconnection between oxidative stress and the release of VOCs from target diseased and healthy organs could greatly help diagnoses. It is generally considered that oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids are a major source of these VOCs. An investigation listing the many possible volatile oxidation products has not been undertaken. This is described here using a mechanistic analysis (based on the literature) of the compounds derived from molecular cleavage and the results compared with a recent review of all the VOCs emanating from the human body, which satisfactorily explains the presence of at least 100 VOCs. Six important unsaturated fatty acids, oleic, palmitoleic, linoleic, linolenic, arachidonic, and cervonic acids have been shown to be capable of producing up to 18 n+6 unique breakdown products (where n = the number of alkene double bonds in the fatty acid hydrocarbon chain), in total 299 compounds. In many cases these have not been reported. We suggest several reasons for this: these VOCs have not been expected, so researchers are not looking for them and importantly some are not present in the mass spectral libraries, or they are too low a concentration to have been detected, or are not present. Furthermore a theoretical explanation for the origins of branched aldehydes and other compounds arising from bacterial oxidative metabolism of unsaturated fatty acids are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norman Ratcliffe
- Institute of Biosensor Technology, University of the West of England, Coldharbour Lane, Frenchay, Bristol BS16 1QY, United Kingdom
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Schievano E, Pasini G, Cozzi G, Mammi S. Identification of the production chain of Asiago d'Allevo cheese by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and principal component analysis. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2008; 56:7208-7214. [PMID: 18662008 DOI: 10.1021/jf801391w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
In the present work, a rapid and simple NMR method to discriminate Asiago d'Allevo cheese samples from different production chains is described. A fast and reproducible extraction of the organic fraction was employed. By applying chemometric analysis to NMR data, it is possible to differentiate PDO Asiago cheese produced in alpine farms from that produced in lowland and mountain industrialized factories. PCA of both (1)H and (13)C NMR spectra showed a good separation of alpine farm products from the other ones, whereas the lowland and mountain industrialized cheeses are undistinguishable. The samples were differentiated on the basis of a higher content of unsaturated fatty acids, principally oleic, linoleic, linolenic, and conjugated linoleic acids for the alpine farm cheeses and a higher content of saturated fatty acids for the industrialized products. Conjugated linoleic acid and 1-pentene are also discriminating components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabetta Schievano
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Università di Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy.
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Newman JW, Hammock BD. Optimized thiol derivatizing reagent for the mass spectral analysis of disubstituted epoxy fatty acids. J Chromatogr A 2001; 925:223-40. [PMID: 11519808 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(01)00998-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
A novel procedure is described for the derivatization of fatty acid epoxides in the presence of their corresponding diols. The acidic character of 2,3,5,6-tetrafluorobenzenethiol promotes favorable mass fragmentation of linoleate and arachidonate derived epoxide derivatives and reduces alkene isomerization to a manageable side reaction, eliminated through the addition of a thiol scavenger. After silylation, regioisomeric mixtures of epoxy- and dihydroxylipids are simultaneously detected and discriminated using gas chromatography with electron impact mass spectral detection. Silylated hydroxysulfanyloctadecanoids yielded instrumental detection limits of 5 pg/microl, sufficient sensitivity for the quantification of endogenous epoxylipids.
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Affiliation(s)
- J W Newman
- Department of Entomology and the University of California Davis Cancer Research Center, University of California, 95616, USA
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