Barrier methods of contraception and cervical intraepithelial neoplasia

Colposcopic findings to study cervical changes in reproductive age group women using various contraceptives

BACKGROUND

Colposcopy has a key role to play in see-and-treat programs for premalignant cervical lesions. The aim of the study/was to observe cervical changes with a colposcope using the Swede scoring system in fertile age group women using various contraceptives: conventional methods (barrier methods, coitus interruptus), oral contraceptives (OCPs), copper-T and bilateral tubectomy. The aim of the study was to observe and evaluate the colposcopic findings using the Swede scoring system for the diagnosis of premalignant/malignant lesions in reproductive age group women using various contraceptives.

METHODS

This was a prospective observational study, conducted among 200 women of reproductive age group using various contraceptives in a tertiary care institute in North India. PAP smear, direct visual examination, VIA (Visual Inspection with Acetic Acid) examination, colposcopic examination, and (biopsy if indicated) were done. The data were collected, and analysis was done using Microsoft Excel Office Software 2019 version 19.11 and epi info (CDC Atlanta) 7.23.1. Statistical analysis was done using percentages, mean, mode, median, standard deviation, Chi-square, Fisher's Test, and Anova Test.

RESULTS

We found positive PAP (Papanicolaou test) smears in 61.50%, positive VIA examination in 9%, and positive findings in colposcopic examination in 28.50%, Swede score of 0-3 in 100% (0-91%, 1-2%, 2-6%, and 3-1%) and positive biopsy in 9% subjects. Malignant findings were observed in 1.00% of PAP smears. Colposcopic findings were CIN 1 (cervical intraepithelial neoplasia 1) in 8.5% and CIN 2 in 0.5% subjects. Swede score was zero in 91%, 1 in 2%, 2 in 6%, and 3 in 1% of subjects. HPE (histopathological examination) was chronic cervicitis in 8.50% and mild dysplasia/CIN 1 in 0.5%. No significant statistical associations between contraceptive choice and false-positive test results or disease prevalence was found in any group except Cu-T users p = 0.0184 (especially for CIN 2; p = 0.0109 and CIN 1 more in all groups than Cu-T users). Colposcopy had sensitivity 100%, specificity 91.46% (0/0 = 0%) PPV = 5.56%, NPV = 100%, Accuracy = 91.5% for detecting mild dysplasia/CIN-non-significant (p = 0.055). Our study had mainly low-grade lesions with 100% NPV. With increase in Swede Score, sensitivity increases but at the expense of specificity but it was statistically non-significant (p = 0.055).

CONCLUSIONS

Our study may guide the rational use of colposcopy with Swede scoring for see-and-treat lesions, which is easy and with a low learning curve, as a tool for diagnosis but only in cases where indicated like unhealthy cervix because of the high rate of false-positive results. In low-grade lesions, it is highly useful to rule out the disease.

Association of abnormal cervical cytology with coinfection of human papillomavirus and Chlamydia trachomatis

Introduction:

Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) and human papillomavirus (HPV) are considered to be major sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and likely health hazard among women. In addition, HPV and CT are considered as potential cofactors in the development of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN).

Objectives:

The main objective of this study was to investigate the association of HPV and CT infection with the presence of abnormal cervical cytology.

Materials and Methods:

A cross-sectional study was carried out on 90 women with complaints of vaginal discharge attending STI clinic in a tertiary care hospital in New Delhi. Papanicolaou staining and polymerase chain reaction were done for the detection of HPV and CT. Statistical analyses were performed for comparison.

Results:

Abnormal cervical cytology was observed in 42.2% of the study participants (41.1% low-grade squamous intraepithelial neoplasia and 1.1% high-grade intraepithelial neoplasia). HPV and CT were positive in 21.1% and 31.5% of participants with abnormal cervical cytology, respectively. Coinfection with HPV and CT was observed in 84.2% of participants with cervical atypia. Further, genital herpes was diagnosed in 18.9% of the studied population and a significant association was observed between genital herpetic ulcers and abnormal cervical cytology (P = 0.016).

Conclusion:

CT was found to be a significant risk factor for cervical cytological abnormalities in our study. HPV and CT coinfection were also associated with a higher prevalence of cervical atypia. As chlamydial infection is easily treatable, we recommend screening and treatment of all women of the reproductive age group for Chlamydia to decrease the risk of cervical dysplasia.

Limitation:

This is a single-center STI clinic-based study. Multicenter and community-based studies with a larger cohort will confirm the association.

Cervical cytological changes in HIV-infected patients attending care and treatment clinic at Muhimbili National Hospital, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

BACKGROUND

Tanzania is among Sub-Saharan countries mostly affected by the HIV and AIDS pandemic, females being more vulnerable than males. HIV infected women appear to have a higher rate of persistent infection by high risk types of human papillomavirus (HPV) strongly associated with high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (HSIL) and invasive cervical carcinoma. Furthermore, although HIV infection and cervical cancer are major public health problems, the frequency and HIV/HPV association of cervical cancer and HSIL is not well documented in Tanzania, thus limiting the development of preventive and therapeutic strategies.

METHODS

A prospective unmatched, case-control study of HIV-seropositive, ≥ 18 years of age and consenting non-pregnant patients attending the care and treatment center (CTC) at Muhimbili National Hoospital (MNH) as cases was done between 2005 and 2006. HIV seronegative, non-pregnant and consenting women recruited from the Cervical Cancer Screening unit (CCSU) at ORCI were used as controls while those who did not consent to study participation and/or individuals under < 18 years were excluded. Pap smears were collected for routine cytodiagnosis and P53 immunohistochemistry (IHC). Cervical lesions were classified according to the Modified Bethesda System.

RESULTS

A total of 170 participants from the two centers were recruited including 50 HIV-seronegative controls were from the CCSU. Ages ranged from 20-66 years (mean 40.5 years) for cases and 20-69 years (mean 41.6 years) for controls. The age group 36-45 years was the most affected by HIV (39.2%, n = 47). Cervicitis, squamous intraepithelial lesions (SIL) and carcinoma constituted 28.3% (n = 34), 38.3% (n = 46) and 5.8% (n = 7) respectively among cases, and 28% (n = 14), 34% (n = 17) and 2% (n = 1) for controls, although this was not statistically significant (P-value = 0.61). IHC showed that p53 was not detectable in HPV + Pap smears and cell blocks indicating possible degradation.

CONCLUSIONS

The frequency of SIL and carcinoma appeared to be higher among HIV-infected women on HAART compared to seronegative controls and as expected increased with age. HIV seropositive patients appeared to present earlier with SIL compared to those HIV seronegative suggesting a role of HIV in altering the natural history of HPV infection and cervical lesions. The absence of p53 immunoreactivity in HPV + lesions is indicative of the ability of HPV E6 proteins to interact with the tumor suppressor gene and pave way for viral-induced oncogenesis in the studied Tanzanian women.

Use of various contraceptives and human papillomavirus 16 and 18 infections in women with cervical intraepithelial neoplasia

The aim of the study was to evaluate the frequency of human papillomavirus (HPV) 16 and 18 infections in patients with cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) according to the use of various contraceptive methods. In a study group of 1435 patients with histologically proven CIN, among whom 391 (27.2%) used no contraception, 44 (3.1%) used barrier methods, 705 (49.1%) used oral contraceptives and 295 (20.7%) used an intrauterine device (IUD), the presence of HPV infection was evaluated by DNA in situ hybridization. HPV 16 or 18 infection was present in 666 (46.4%) of all patients in 348 (49.4%) patients who used oral contraceptives, in 169 (43.2%) patients with no contraception, in 128 (43.4%) patients with an IUD and in 21 (47.7%) patients who used barrier methods. There were no significant differences in HPV 16 and 18 infection frequencies among all four groups of patients regarding the contraception method used.

Hormonal and barrier methods of contraception, oncogenic human papillomaviruses, and cervical squamous intraepithelial lesion development

We assessed the influence of hormonal (oral, injectable, or levonorgestrel [Norplant, Wyeth-Ayerst, Philadelphia, PA]) and barrier methods of contraception on the risk of cervical squamous intraepithelial lesions (SIL), while adjusting for high-risk (HR) HPV infection. Subjects were women receiving family planning services through the state health department clinics from 1995 to 1998. We selected 60 cases with high-grade cervical/SIL (HSIL) and 316 with low-grade cervical/SIL (LSIL) and controls (427 women with normal cervical cytology) and analyzed cervical DNA for HR-HPV, using Hybrid Capture I (Digene; Gaithersburg, MD). When assessing ever use, duration, recency, latency, and age at first use, neither oral contraceptives (OC), Norplant, nor injectable use was associated with an increased risk of SIL development after adjusting for age, age at first sexual intercourse, and HR-HPV positivity. Among HR-HPV-positive women, longer duration barrier method use was associated with a reduced risk of SIL. This finding has important clinical implications for SIL prevention among HR-HPV-infected women.

Risk factors for pre-cancerous lesions of the cervix

Studies on risk factors for pre-cancerous lesions of the uterine cervix have shown strong association with sexual practice. Women with multiple sexual partners and intercourse at early age are at high risk. A role of male partners in further enhancing the risk has been identified. All these support the hypothesis relating to a sexually transmissible aetiological agent. An extensive review of the literature on the risk factors for pre-cancerous lesions of cervix has been carried out. The risk factors were grouped into genital, sexual, chemical, dietary and life factors. Human papilloma virus (HPV) is the major infectious aetiological agent associated with the development of pre-cancerous lesions of cervix. Other co-factors such as multiple sexual partners of the male as well as the female and early age of first intercourse are also involved at the critical aetiological step of progression from low-grade to high-grade lesions. The role of other infectious agents in terms of supportive or interactive effects is not clear. No independent effect for herpes simplex virus 2 on risk is observed. Other risk factors include cigarette smoking, oral contraceptive usage, certain nutritional deficiencies and poor personal hygiene. However, it is not clear whether these factors operate independently from HPV. There is no consistency in the independent effect of these factors on the development of low- to high-grade lesions of cervix. There is a similarity in the patterns of risk between pre-cancerous lesions of the cervix and cervical cancer. Monogamy, late commencement of sexual activity, personal hygiene and use of barrier contraceptive methods help towards primary prevention. In the long-term, primary prevention of cervical neoplasia through HPV immunization of population may be a possibility.

Oral contraceptives and cervical cancer--further findings from the Oxford Family Planning Association contraceptive study

In 1983, we reported results from the Oxford Family Planning Association contraceptive study regarding the association between oral contraceptives (OCs) and cervical neoplasia, after a 10 year follow-up of a cohort of 17,000 women. Further findings from this study are reported here after an additional 12 years of follow-up. A nested case--control design was used in which cases were all women diagnosed under 45 years of age with invasive carcinoma (n = 33), carcinoma in situ (n = 121) or dysplasia (n = 159). Controls were randomly selected from among cohort members and matched to cases on exact year of birth and clinic attended at recruitment to study. Conditional logistic regression analysis was used to determine odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) associated with various aspects of OC use relative to never users adjusted for social class, smoking, age at first birth and ever use of diaphragm or condom. Ever users of OCs had a slightly elevated OR for all types of cervical neoplasia combined (OR = 1.40, 95% CI 1.00-1.96). Odds ratios were highest for invasive carcinoma (OR = 4.44, 95% CI 1.04-31.6), intermediate for carcinoma in situ (OR = 1.73, 95% CI 1.00-3.00) and lowest for dysplasia (OR = 1.07, 95% CI 0.69-1.66). The elevated risk associated with OC use appeared to be largely confined to current or recent (last use in the past 2 years) long-term users of OCs. Among current or recent users, ORs for all types of cervical neoplasia combined were 3.34 (95% CI 1.96-5.67) for 49-72 months of use, 1.69 (95% CI 0.97-2.95) for 73-96 months and 2.04 (95% CI 1.34-3.11) for 97 or more months. These results suggest a possible effect of OC use on later stages of cervical carcinogenesis, although residual confounding due to sexual factors or human papillomavirus (HPV) infection cannot be ruled out.

Women, contraception and STDs including HIV

It is estimated that eight million women are infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) worldwide. Heterosexual transmission is the predominant mode of HIV transmission on a global basis and is becoming increasingly important in the Western world. Women have long used contraceptives as a means of protection against an unwanted pregnancy, some of which may also protect against sexually transmitted disease (STD) including HIV. We review the relationship between contraceptive methods and STD acquisition and transmission; HIV acquisition and transmission; and the implications of contraceptive use, particularly regarding disease progression, in those women who are already infected with the virus. It is important for all women that protection against both unwanted pregnancy and HIV acquisition and transmission are considered together and not in isolation as nowhere is the argument for a broad based multi-disciplinary approach more cogent.