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Bajada MA, Sanjosé-Orduna J, Di Liberto G, Tosoni S, Pacchioni G, Noël T, Vilé G. Interfacing single-atom catalysis with continuous-flow organic electrosynthesis. Chem Soc Rev 2022; 51:3898-3925. [PMID: 35481480 DOI: 10.1039/d2cs00100d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The global warming crisis has sparked a series of environmentally cautious trends in chemistry, allowing us to rethink the way we conduct our synthesis, and to incorporate more earth-abundant materials in our catalyst design. "Single-atom catalysis" has recently appeared on the catalytic spectrum, and has truly merged the benefits that homogeneous and heterogeneous analogues have to offer. Further still, the possibility to activate these catalysts by means of a suitable electric potential could pave the way for a true integration of diverse synthetic methodologies and renewable electricity. Despite their esteemed benefits, single-atom electrocatalysts are still limited to the energy sector (hydrogen evolution reaction, oxygen reduction, etc.) and numerous examples in the literature still invoke the use of precious metals (Pd, Pt, Ir, etc.). Additionally, batch electroreactors are employed, which limit the intensification of such processes. It is of paramount importance that the field continues to grow in a more sustainable direction, seeking new ventures into the space of organic electrosynthesis and flow electroreactor technologies. In this piece, we discuss some of the progress being made with earth abundant homogeneous and heterogeneous electrocatalysts and flow electrochemistry, within the context of organic electrosynthesis, and highlight the prospects of alternatively utilizing single-atom catalysts for such applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A Bajada
- Department of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy.
| | - Jesús Sanjosé-Orduna
- Flow Chemistry Group, van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, Universiteit van Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Giovanni Di Liberto
- Department of Materials Science, Università di Milano Bicocca, via R. Cozzi 55, 20125 Milano, Italy
| | - Sergio Tosoni
- Department of Materials Science, Università di Milano Bicocca, via R. Cozzi 55, 20125 Milano, Italy
| | - Gianfranco Pacchioni
- Department of Materials Science, Università di Milano Bicocca, via R. Cozzi 55, 20125 Milano, Italy
| | - Timothy Noël
- Flow Chemistry Group, van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, Universiteit van Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Gianvito Vilé
- Department of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy.
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Ashikari Y, Tamaki T, Takahashi Y, Yao Y, Atobe M, Nagaki A. Investigation of Parameter Control for Electrocatalytic Semihydrogenation in a Proton-Exchange Membrane Reactor Utilizing Bayesian Optimization. FRONTIERS IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fceng.2021.819752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Owing to its applicability in sustainable engineering, flow electrochemical synthesis in a proton-exchange membrane (PEM) reactor has attracted considerable attention. Because the reactions in PEM reactors are performed under electro-organic and flow-synthetic conditions, a higher number of reaction parameters exist compared to ordinary reactions. Thus, the optimization of such reactions requires significant amounts of energy, time, chemical and human resources. Herein, we show that the optimization of alkyne semihydrogenation in PEM reactors can be facilitated by means of Bayesian optimization, an applied mathematics strategy. Applying the optimized conditions, we also demonstrate the generation of a deuterated Z-alkene.
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Tay NES, Lehnherr D, Rovis T. Photons or Electrons? A Critical Comparison of Electrochemistry and Photoredox Catalysis for Organic Synthesis. Chem Rev 2022; 122:2487-2649. [PMID: 34751568 PMCID: PMC10021920 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 55.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Redox processes are at the heart of synthetic methods that rely on either electrochemistry or photoredox catalysis, but how do electrochemistry and photoredox catalysis compare? Both approaches provide access to high energy intermediates (e.g., radicals) that enable bond formations not constrained by the rules of ionic or 2 electron (e) mechanisms. Instead, they enable 1e mechanisms capable of bypassing electronic or steric limitations and protecting group requirements, thus enabling synthetic chemists to disconnect molecules in new and different ways. However, while providing access to similar intermediates, electrochemistry and photoredox catalysis differ in several physical chemistry principles. Understanding those differences can be key to designing new transformations and forging new bond disconnections. This review aims to highlight these differences and similarities between electrochemistry and photoredox catalysis by comparing their underlying physical chemistry principles and describing their impact on electrochemical and photochemical methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas E S Tay
- Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027, United States
| | - Dan Lehnherr
- Process Research and Development, Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey 07065, United States
| | - Tomislav Rovis
- Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027, United States
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Kawaguchi D, Ogihara H, Kurokawa H. Upgrading of Ethanol to 1,1-Diethoxyethane by Proton-Exchange Membrane Electrolysis. CHEMSUSCHEM 2021; 14:4431-4438. [PMID: 34291576 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202101188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Revised: 07/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The direct acetalization of ethanol is a significant challenge for upgrading bioethanol to value-added chemicals. In this study, 1,1-diethoxyethane (DEE) is selectively synthesized by the electrolysis of ethanol using a proton-exchange membrane (PEM) reactor. In the PEM reactor, a Pt/C catalyst promoted the electro-oxidation of ethanol to acetaldehyde. The Nafion membrane used as the PEM served as a solid acid catalyst for the acetalization of ethanol and electrochemically formed acetaldehyde. DEE was obtained at high faradaic efficiency (78 %) through sequential electrochemical and nonelectrochemical reactions. The DEE formation rate through PEM electrolysis was higher than that of reported systems. At the cathode, protons extracted from ethanol were reduced to H2 . The electrochemical approach can be utilized as a sustainable process for upgrading bioethanol to chemicals because it can use renewable electricity and does not require chemical reagents (e. g., oxidants and electrolytes).
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Kawaguchi
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-Okubo, Sakura-ku, Saitama, 338-8570, Japan
| | - Hitoshi Ogihara
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-Okubo, Sakura-ku, Saitama, 338-8570, Japan
| | - Hideki Kurokawa
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University, 255 Shimo-Okubo, Sakura-ku, Saitama, 338-8570, Japan
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Impact of Neodymium and Scandium Ionic Radii on Sorption Dynamics of Amberlite IR120 and AB-17-8 Remote Interaction. MATERIALS 2021; 14:ma14185402. [PMID: 34576624 PMCID: PMC8466485 DOI: 10.3390/ma14185402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Revised: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the work is to provide a comparative study of influence of ionic radii of neodymium and scandium ions on their sorption process from corresponding sulfates by individual ion exchangers Amberlite IR120, AB-17-8 and interpolymer system Amberlite IR120-AB-17-8. Experiments were carried out by using the following physicochemical methods of analysis: conductometry, pH-metry, colorimetry, and atomic-emission spectroscopy. Ion exchangers in the interpolymer system undergo remote interactions with a further transition into highly ionized state. There is the formation of optimal conformation in the structure of the initial ion exchangers. A significant increase of ionization of the ion-exchange resins occurs at molar ratio of Amberlite IR120:AB-17-8 = 5:1. A significant increase of sorption properties is observed at this ratio due to the mutual activation of ion exchangers. The average growth of sorption properties in interpolymer system Amberlite IR120:AB-17-8 = 5:1 is over 90% comparatively to Amberlite IR120 and almost 170% comparatively to AB-17-8 for neodymium ions sorption; for scandium ions sorption the growth is over 65% comparatively to Amberlite IR120 and almost 90% comparatively to AB-17-8. A possible reason for higher sorption of neodymium ions in comparison with scandium ions is maximum conformity of globes of internode links of Amberlite IR120 and AB-17-8 after activation to sizes of neodymium sulfate in an aqueous medium.
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Fukazawa A, Shimizu Y, Shida N, Atobe M. Electrocatalytic hydrogenation of benzoic acids in a proton-exchange membrane reactor. Org Biomol Chem 2021; 19:7363-7368. [PMID: 34612359 DOI: 10.1039/d1ob01197a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The highly efficient chemoselective electrocatalytic hydrogenation of benzoic acids (BAs) to cyclohexanecarboxylic acids (CCAs) was carried out in a proton-exchange membrane reactor under mild conditions without hydrogenation of the carboxyl group. Among the investigated catalysts, the PtRu alloy catalyst was found to be the most suitable for achieving high current efficiencies for production of CCAs. An electrochemical spillover mechanism on the PtRu alloy catalyst was also proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsushi Fukazawa
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Yokohama National University, 79-5 Tokiwadai, Hodogaya-ku, Yokohama, 240-8501, Japan.
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Abstract
With water providing a highly favored solution environment for industrial processes (and in biological processes), it is interesting to develop water-based electrolysis processes for the synthesis and conversion of organic and biomass-based molecules. Molecules with low solubility in aqueous media can be dispersed/solubilized (i) by physical dispersion tools (e.g., milling, power ultrasound, or high-shear ultraturrax processing), (ii) in some cases by pressurization/supersaturation (e.g., for gases), (iii) by adding cosolvents or "carriers" such as chremophor EL, or (iv) by adding surfactants to generate micelles, microemulsions, and/or stabilized biphasic conditions. This Account examines and compares methodologies to bring the dispersed or multiphase system into contact with an electrode. Both the microscopic process based on individual particle impact and the overall electro-organic transformation are of interest. Distinct mechanistic cases for multiphase redox processes are considered. Most traditional electro-organic transformations are performed in homogeneous solution with reagents, products, electrolyte, and possibly mediators or redox catalysts all in the same (usually organic) solution phase. This may lead to challenges in the product separation step and in the reuse of solvents and electrolytes. When aqueous electrolyte media are used, reagents and products (or even the electrolyte) may be present as microdroplets or nanoparticles. Redox transformations then occur during interfacial "collisions" under multiphase conditions or within a reaction layer when a redox mediator is present. Benefits of this approach can be (i) the use of a highly conducting aqueous electrolyte, (ii) simple separation of products and reuse of the electrolyte, (iii) phase-transfer conditions in redox catalysis, (iv) new reaction pathways, and (v) improved sustainability. In some cases, a surface phase or phase boundary processes can lead to interesting changes in reaction pathways. Controlling the reaction zone within the multiphase redox system poses a challenge, and methods based on microchannel flow reactors have been developed to provide a higher degree of control. However, detrimental effects in microchannel systems are also observed, in particular for limited current densities (which can be very low in microchannel multiphase flow) or in the development of technical solutions for scale-up of multiphase redox transformations. This Account describes physical approaches (and reactor designs) to bring multiphase redox systems into effective contact with the electrode surface as well as cases of important electro-organic multiphase transformations. Mechanistic cases considered are "impacts" by microdroplets or particles at the electrode, effects of dissolved intermediates or redox mediators, and effects of dissolved redox catalysts. These mechanistic cases are discussed for important multiphase transformations for gaseous, liquid, and solid dispersed phases. Processes based on mesoporous membranes and hydrogen-permeable palladium membranes are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Marken
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, U.K
| | - Jay D. Wadhawan
- School of Engineering, University of Hull, Cottingham Road, Kingston upon Hull, North Humberside HU6 7RX, U.K
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Yoshida JI, Shimizu A, Hayashi R. Electrogenerated Cationic Reactive Intermediates: The Pool Method and Further Advances. Chem Rev 2017; 118:4702-4730. [PMID: 29077393 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 358] [Impact Index Per Article: 51.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Electrochemistry serves as a powerful method for generating reactive intermediates, such as organic cations. In general, there are two ways to use reactive intermediates for chemical reactions: (1) generation in the presence of a reaction partner and (2) generation in the absence of a reaction partner with accumulation in solution as a "pool" followed by reaction with a subsequently added reaction partner. The former approach is more popular because reactive intermediates are usually short-lived transient species, but the latter method is more flexible and versatile. This review focuses on the latter approach and provides a concise overview of the current methods for the generation and accumulation of cationic reactive intermediates as a pool using modern techniques of electrochemistry and their reactions with subsequently added nucleophilic reaction partners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Ichi Yoshida
- Department of Synthetic Chemistry and Biological Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering , Kyoto University , Nishikyo-ku , Kyoto 615-8510 , Japan
| | - Akihiro Shimizu
- Department of Synthetic Chemistry and Biological Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering , Kyoto University , Nishikyo-ku , Kyoto 615-8510 , Japan
| | - Ryutaro Hayashi
- Department of Synthetic Chemistry and Biological Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering , Kyoto University , Nishikyo-ku , Kyoto 615-8510 , Japan
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Pletcher D, Green RA, Brown RCD. Flow Electrolysis Cells for the Synthetic Organic Chemistry Laboratory. Chem Rev 2017; 118:4573-4591. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 278] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Derek Pletcher
- Chemistry, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, U.K
| | - Robert A. Green
- Chemistry, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, U.K
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Applicability of a Polymerized Ionic Liquid/Carbon Nanoparticle Composite Electrolyte to Reductive Cyclization and Dimerization Reactions. Electrochim Acta 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2016.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Abstract
AbstractThe applicability of ion-exchange membranes (IEMs) in chemical synthesis was discussed based on the existing literature. At first, a brief description of properties and structures of commercially available ion-exchange membranes was provided. Then, the IEM-based synthesis methods reported in the literature were summarized, and areas of their application were discussed. The methods in question, namely: membrane electrolysis, electro-electrodialysis, electrodialysis metathesis, ion-substitution electrodialysis and electrodialysis with bipolar membrane, were found to be applicable for a number of organic and inorganic syntheses and acid/base production or recovery processes, which can be conducted in aqueous and non-aqueous solvents. The number and the quality of the scientific reports found indicate a great potential for IEMs in chemical synthesis.
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SAWAMURA T, TAKAHASHI K, INAGI S, FUCHIGAMI T. Sodium Salts Dissolution in an Aprotic Solvent by Coordination of Poly(ethylene glycol) for Effective Anodic Reactions of Organic Compounds. ELECTROCHEMISTRY 2013. [DOI: 10.5796/electrochemistry.81.365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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Montiel V, Sáez A, Expósito E, García-García V, Aldaz A. Use of MEA technology in the synthesis of pharmaceutical compounds: The electrosynthesis of N-acetyl-l-cysteine. Electrochem commun 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.elecom.2009.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
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Yoshida JI, Kataoka K, Horcajada R, Nagaki A. Modern Strategies in Electroorganic Synthesis. Chem Rev 2008; 108:2265-99. [DOI: 10.1021/cr0680843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1027] [Impact Index Per Article: 64.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Heyl A, Jörissen J. Electrochemical detoxification of waste water without additives using solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) technology. J APPL ELECTROCHEM 2006. [DOI: 10.1007/s10800-006-9181-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Nagarale RK, Gohil GS, Shahi VK. Recent developments on ion-exchange membranes and electro-membrane processes. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2006; 119:97-130. [PMID: 16325751 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2005.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 326] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2005] [Accepted: 09/05/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Rapid growth of chemical and biotechnology in diversified areas fuels the demand for the need of reliable green technologies for the down stream processes, which include separation, purification and isolation of the molecules. Ion-exchange membrane technologies are non-hazardous in nature and being widely used not only for separation and purification but their application also extended towards energy conversion devices, storage batteries and sensors etc. Now there is a quite demand for the ion-exchange membrane with better selectivities, less electrical resistance, high chemical, mechanical and thermal stability as well as good durability. A lot of work has been done for the development of these types of ion-exchange membranes during the past twenty-five years. Herein we have reviewed the preparation of various types of ion-exchange membranes, their characterization and applications for different electro-membrane processes. Primary attention has been given to the chemical route used for the membrane preparation. Several general reactions used for the preparation of ion-exchange membranes were described. Methodologies used for the characterization of these membranes and their applications were also reviewed for the benefit of readers, so that they can get all information about the ion-exchange membranes at one platform. Although there are large number of reports available regarding preparations and applications of ion-exchange membranes more emphasis were predicted for the usefulness of these membranes or processes for solving certain type of industrial or social problems. More efforts are needed to bring many products or processes to pilot scale and extent their applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- R K Nagarale
- Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar-364002, Gujarat, India
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Yuan X, Ma Z, Bueb H, Drillet JF, Hagen J, Schmidt V. Cogeneration of electricity and organic chemicals using a polymer electrolyte fuel cell. Electrochim Acta 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2005.02.080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Self-supported paired electrosynthesis of 2,5-dimethoxy-2,5-dihydrofuran using a thin layer flow cell without intentionally added supporting electrolyte. Electrochem commun 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.elecom.2004.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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Bessarabov D, Michaels W. Morphological diversity of platinum clusters deposited on proton-exchange, perfluorinated membranes. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2001. [DOI: 10.1016/s0958-2118(01)80361-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Bessarabov D, Michaels W. Solid polyelectrolyte (SPE) membranes containing a textured platinum catalyst. J Memb Sci 2001. [DOI: 10.1016/s0376-7388(01)00592-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Doyle M, Lewittes ME, Roelofs MG, Perusich SA. Ionic Conductivity of Nonaqueous Solvent-Swollen Ionomer Membranes Based on Fluorosulfonate, Fluorocarboxylate, and Sulfonate Fixed Ion Groups. J Phys Chem B 2001. [DOI: 10.1021/jp0038308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marc Doyle
- DuPont Microcircuit Materials, 14 TW Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709-3999
| | - Mark E. Lewittes
- DuPont Central Research and Development, Experimental Station, Wilmington, Delaware 19880-0357
| | - Mark G. Roelofs
- DuPont Central Research and Development, Experimental Station, Wilmington, Delaware 19880-0357
| | - Stephen A. Perusich
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36849-5127
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Hoormann D, Kubon C, Jörissen J, Kröner L, Pütter H. Analysis and minimization of cell voltage in electro-organic syntheses using the solid polymer electrolyte technology. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2001. [DOI: 10.1016/s0022-0728(01)00476-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Steckhan E, Arns T, Heineman WRHilt G, Hoormann D, Jörissen J, Kröner L, Lewall B, Pütter H. Environmental protection and economization of resources by electroorganic and electroenzymatic syntheses. CHEMOSPHERE 2001; 43:63-73. [PMID: 11233827 DOI: 10.1016/s0045-6535(00)00325-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
The electrochemical methodology is an intrinsically environmentally friendly technique. It is especially excellently suited for preventive environmental protection because the practically mass-free electrons are used as reagents. Therefore, it allows the production of organic compounds without the formation of ecologically critical waste which has to be disposed. In addition, toxic waste formation can be prevented by continuous in situ or two-step electrochemical regeneration of heavy metal redox reagents. By using solid polymer electrolytes (ion-exchange membranes), even the use of a supporting electrolyte can be avoided. Thus, product formation can take place in pure methanol without any other chemical present. The consumption of resources can be economized by generating high-value products on both electrodes, anode and cathode (paired electrosynthesis). In certain cases, the same product may be formed on the anode and the cathode (200%-cell). Finally, in electroenzymatic syntheses, two environmentally friendly methods can be combined for the regeneration of the cofactors or the prosthetic groups of redox enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Steckhan
- Kekulé-Institut für Organische Chemie und Biochemie der Universität Bonn, Germany
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Doyle M, Lewittes ME, Roelofs MG, Perusich SA, Lowrey RE. Relationship between ionic conductivity of perfluorinated ionomeric membranes and nonaqueous solvent properties. J Memb Sci 2001. [DOI: 10.1016/s0376-7388(00)00642-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Preparation and characterisation of chemically-modified perfluorinated cation-exchange platinum-containing membranes. J Memb Sci 2000. [DOI: 10.1016/s0376-7388(00)00511-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Jiang JH, Wu BL, Cha CS. Electrosynthesis of p-methoxybenzaldehyde on graphite/Nafion membrane composite electrodes. Electrochim Acta 1998. [DOI: 10.1016/s0013-4686(97)10152-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Jiang JH, Wu BL, Cha CS. Investigation of the mass transport of electroactive compounds in an SPE membrane used for electro-organic synthesis. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 1998. [DOI: 10.1016/s0022-0728(97)00588-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Bontempelli G, Comisso N, Toniolo R, Schiavon G. Electroanalytical sensors for nonconducting media based on electrodes supported on perfluorinated ion-exchange membranes. ELECTROANAL 1997. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.1140090602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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