The maximum of the histone acetyltransferase activity precedes DNA-synthesis in regenerating rat liver

Unraveling the Epigenetic Basis of Liver Development, Regeneration and Disease

A wealth of studies over several decades has revealed an epigenetic prepattern that determines the competence of cellular differentiation in the developing liver. More recently, studies focused on the impact of epigenetic factors during liver regeneration suggest that an epigenetic code in the quiescent liver may establish its regenerative potential. We review work on the pioneer factors and other chromatin remodelers that impact the gene expression patterns instructing hepatocyte and biliary cell specification and differentiation, along with the requirement of epigenetic regulatory factors for hepatic outgrowth. We then explore recent studies involving the role of epigenetic regulators, Arid1a and Uhrf1, in efficient activation of proregenerative genes during liver regeneration, thus highlighting the epigenetic mechanisms of liver disease and tumor development.

Activation of inactive hepatocytes through histone acetylation: a mechanism for functional compensation after massive loss of hepatocytes

The mechanisms by which hepatic function is maintained after extensive parenchymal loss are unclear. In this study, we propose a novel concept of "functional heterogeneity" of hepatocytes based on their different expression of acetylated histones, the markers of active gene transcription, to explain the powerful compensatory capability of the liver. In the healthy human liver, only a fraction of the hepatocytes were marked by acetylated histones (ac-H2AK5, ac-H2BK5, ac-H3K9, ac-H3K14, ac-H3K27, and ac-H3K9/14). With the progression of cirrhosis, the ratio of the positive cells was gradually elevated, accompanied by the gradual exhaustion of the negative cells. By examining the global transcriptome of the mouse hepatocytes, we observed that the primed genes in the positive cells were much more numerous than those in negative cells. In a 70% hepatectomized mouse, the remnant hepatocytes were extensively activated, and the liver function was well maintained even when regeneration was severely inhibited. The functional compensation was absolutely dependent on the elevated expression of acetyl-histones. Additionally, when liver regeneration was blocked, the metabolism-related genes seemed to be preferentially transcribed. In conclusion, we demonstrate that normally, part of the active hepatocytes are competent for routine physiological requirements. The inactive hepatocytes, delicately regulated by acetyl-histones, act as a functional reservoir for future activation to restore the liver function after massive parenchymal loss.

Expression and function of fibroblast growth factor (FGF) 7 during liver regeneration

BACKGROUND/AIM

Previous studies have shown that fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) are involved in the process of liver injury repair. Liver regeneration after partial hepatectomy (PH) is impaired in transgenic mice expressing dominant-negative FGFR2b in hepatocytes. Although FGF7, a ligand specifically bound to FGFR2b, is expressed by activated hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) in fibrotic livers, the expressions and functions of FGF7 and FGFR2b after PH remain unexplored. Therefore, this study sought to examine the potential role of FGF7 signaling during liver regeneration.

METHODS

We examined the expression of FGF7 and FGFR2b in normal and regenerating livers. Effects of FGF7 on hepatocytes were examined in vitro using primary hepatocyte culture with FGF7 recombinant protein and in vivo by hydrodynamic-based gene transfer method.

RESULTS

We found that FGF7 expression was increased according to the activation status of HSCs after PH. The receptor, FGFR2b, was also increased in hepatocytes during liver regeneration. In vitro treatment with FGF7 protein activated ERK1/2 and promoted proliferation of hepatocytes isolated from regenerating livers. In vivo overexpression of exogenous FGF7 could notably promote hepatic proliferation and activate MAPKs after PH.

CONCLUSION

This study suggests a role for activated HSC-expressed FGF7 in stimulating FGF signaling pathways in hepatocytes and regulating liver regeneration.

Eukaryotic DNA Replication in a Chromatin Context

There has been remarkable progress in the last 20 years in defining the molecular mechanisms that regulate initiation of DNA synthesis in eukaryotic cells. Replication origins in the DNA nucleate the ordered assembly of protein factors to form a prereplication complex (preRC) that is poised for DNA synthesis. Transition of the preRC to an active initiation complex is regulated by cyclin-dependent kinases and other signaling molecules, which promote further protein assembly and activate the mini chromosome maintenance helicase. We will review these mechanisms and describe the state of knowledge about the proteins involved. However, we will also consider an additional layer of complexity. The DNA in the cell is packaged with histone proteins into chromatin. Chromatin structure provides an additional layer of heritable information with associated epigenetic modifications. Thus, we will begin by describing chromatin structure, and how the cell generally controls access to the DNA. Access to the DNA requires active chromatin remodeling, specific histone modifications, and regulated histone deposition. Studies in transcription have revealed a variety of mechanisms that regulate DNA access, and some of these are likely to be shared with DNA replication. We will briefly describe heterochromatin as a model for an epigenetically inherited chromatin state. Next, we will describe the mechanisms of replication initiation and how these are affected by constraints of chromatin. Finally, chromatin must be reassembled with appropriate modifications following passage of the replication fork, and our third major topic will be the reassembly of chromatin and its associated epigenetic marks. Thus, in this chapter, we seek to bring together the studies of replication initiation and the studies of chromatin into a single holistic narrative.

Schizosaccharomyces pombe mst2+ encodes a MYST family histone acetyltransferase that negatively regulates telomere silencing

Histone acetylation and deacetylation are associated with transcriptional activity and the formation of constitutively silent heterochromatin. Increasingly, histone acetylation is also implicated in other chromosome transactions, including replication and segregation. We have cloned the only Schizosaccharomyces pombe MYST family histone acetyltransferase genes, mst1(+) and mst2(+). Mst1p, but not Mst2p, is essential for viability. Both proteins are localized to the nucleus and bound to chromatin throughout the cell cycle. Deltamst2 genetically interacts with mutants that affect heterochromatin, cohesion, and telomere structure. Mst2p is a negative regulator of silencing at the telomere but does not affect silencing in the centromere or mating type region. We generated a census of proteins and histone modifications at wild-type telomeres. A histone acetylation gradient at the telomeres is lost in Deltamst2 cells without affecting the distribution of Taz1p, Swi6p, Rad21p, or Sir2p. We propose that the increased telomeric silencing is caused by histone hypoacetylation and/or an increase in the ratio of methylated to acetylated histones. Although telomere length is normal, meiosis is aberrant in Deltamst2 diploid homozygote mutants, suggesting that telomeric histone acetylation contributes to normal meiotic progression.

MBD3 and HDAC1, two components of the NuRD complex, are localized at Aurora-A-positive centrosomes in M phase

MBD3, a component of the histone deacetylase NuRD complex, contains the methyl-CpG-binding domain (MBD), yet does not possess appreciable mCpG-specific binding activity. The functional significance of MBD3 in the NuRD complex remains enigmatic, partly because of the limited availability of biochemical approaches, such as immunoprecipitation, to analyze MBD3. In this study, we stably expressed the FLAG-tagged version of MBD3 in HeLa cells. We found that MBD3-FLAG was incorporated into the NuRD complex, and the MBD3-FLAG-containing NuRD complex was efficiently immunoprecipitated by anti-FLAG antibodies. By exploiting this system, we found that MBD3 is phosphorylated in vivo in the late G(2) and early M phases. Moreover, we found that Aurora-A, a serine/threonine kinase active specifically in the late G(2) and early M phases, phosphorylates MBD3 in vitro, physically associates with MBD3 in vivo, and co-localizes with MBD3 at the centrosomes in the early M phase. Interestingly, HDAC1 is distributed at the centrosomes in a manner similar to MBD3. These results suggest the highly dynamic nature of the temporal and spatial distributions, as well as the biochemical modification, of the NuRD complex in M phase, probably through an interaction with kinases, including Aurora-A. These observations will contribute significantly to the elucidation of the yet-uncharacterized cell cycle-controlled functions of the NuRD complex.

Replication factors MCM2 and ORC1 interact with the histone acetyltransferase HBO1

The minichromosome maintenance (MCM) proteins, together with the origin recognition complex (ORC) proteins and Cdc6, play an essential role in eukaryotic DNA replication through the formation of a pre-replication complex at origins of replication. We used a yeast two-hybrid screen to identify MCM2-interacting proteins. One of the proteins we identified is identical to the ORC1-interacting protein termed HBO1. HBO1 belongs to the MYST family, characterized by a highly conserved C2HC zinc finger and a putative histone acetyltransferase domain. Biochemical studies confirmed the interaction between MCM2 and HBO1 in vitro and in vivo. An N-terminal domain of MCM2 is necessary for binding to HBO1, and a C2HC zinc finger of HBO1 is essential for binding to MCM2. A reverse yeast two-hybrid selection was performed to isolate an allele of MCM2 that is defective for interaction with HBO1; this allele was then used to isolate a suppressor mutant of HBO1 that restores the interaction with the mutant MCM2. This suppressor mutation was located in the HBO1 zinc finger. Taken together, these findings strongly suggest that the interaction between MCM2 and HBO1 is direct and mediated by the C2HC zinc finger of HBO1. The biochemical and genetic interactions of MYST family protein HBO1 with two components of the replication apparatus, MCM2 and ORC1, suggest that HBO1-associated HAT activity may play a direct role in the process of DNA replication.

Histone acetylation and the control of the cell cycle

The critical steps of the cell cycle are generally controlled through the transcriptional regulation of specific subsets of genes. Transcriptional regulation has been recently linked to acetylation or deacetylation of core histone tails: acetylated histone tails are generally associated with active chromatin, whereas deacetylated histone tails are associated with silent parts of the genome. A number of transcriptional co-regulators are histone acetyl-transferases or histone deacetylases. Here, we discuss some of the critical cell cycle steps in which these enzymes are involved.

Effect of aging and gamma radiation on acetylation of rat liver histones

We studied age-related and radiation induced changes in histone acetyltransferase activity and acetylation of histone fractions in normal and regenerating rat livers. Male Wistar rats aged 1-28 months were used through the studies. They were exposed to whole-body doses of 5.7 Gy gamma radiation from a 60Co source and partial hepatectomy was carried out 30 min after irradiation. Within nuclei isolated from normal and regenerating livers of rats, acetyltransferase activity of histones increased with age. An age-dependent decrease in histone acetyltransferase activity in normal and regenerating rat livers was also obvious at the time of maximum activity (i.e. at the 4th min of incubation). The radiation-induced drop in acetyltransferase activity was mild in normal livers. Twenty-four hours after partial hepatectomy, acetyltransferase activity in regenerating livers was almost completely inhibited by irradiation. The acetylation of histone fractions and subfractions was not equal. The highest activity among all histone fractions was found in fraction H4. In regenerating livers of non-irradiated and irradiated rats, there was a greater rate of acetylation in tetraacetylated subfractions of histone H4 compared with intact livers.

Aging and radiation induced alterations of histones in regenerating rat liver

We studied the age-related and radiation-induced changes in histones in regenerating liver of rats between 1 and 28 months of age. The examinations were carried out 30 h after a two-third hepatectomy, i.e. after the first wave of DNA and histone synthesis. During induced regeneration age-related changes in liver manifested themselves in decreasing the cellularity per gram wet weight, in slowing down the increase in DNA and histone contents per organ, in changing the mutual proportions of histone fractions H1, H2A + H2B, H4 and in increasing the H1 zero variant within histone H1. Radiation-induced latent injury (a dose of 5.7 Gy gamma radiation 30 min before partial hepatectomy) was manifested during induced regeneration in similar but much more profound changes with their earlier onset. Since the changes in regenerating liver were found not be milder than in intact liver it means, that induced proliferation did not lead to elimination of altered cells or to their rejuvenation.

Opposite responses of nuclear spermidine N8-acetyltransferase and histone acetyltransferase activities to regenerative stimuli in rat liver

Experiments performed in different models of hepatic regeneration at the time of maximal DNA synthesis, determined by thymidine kinase activity assay, demonstrated that spermidine N8-acetyltransferase activity increased 48 hr after CCl4 administration (2-fold), 72 hr after CCl4 plus phenobarbital (3-fold) and 24 hr after partial hepatectomy (4.5-fold). On the contrary, at these times histone acetyltransferase activity diminished (approximately twofold) and was unchanged compared with control values in the liver of hepatotoxin-treated and hepatectomized rats, respectively. Histone acetylation was, however, enhanced 1.5-fold before the onset of DNA replication (14 hr), and 3.4-fold after the peak of DNA synthesis (32 hr) in the liver of hepatectomized rats. alpha-Difluoromethylornithine, a specific and irreversible inhibitor of ornithine decarboxylase that was administered to hepatectomized rats, blocked polyamine synthesis, thymidine kinase activity and consequently liver regeneration 24 hr after the surgery. In those conditions, spermidine N8-acetyltransferase activity was decreased approximately twofold, whereas histone acetyltransferase activity was elevated approximately twofold. All these effects were reversed by putrescine coadministration. Altogether, these findings showed that nuclear spermidine N8-acetyltransferase and histone acetyltransferase activities were regulated in opposite ways during the processes associated with liver regeneration. Moreover, they suggested that the polyamines themselves might have a direct or indirect role in this regulation.

Possible role of histone acetylation and histone H1(0) replacement for the initiation of replication in regenerating rat liver

The role of histone acetylation and DNA synthesis has been investigated extensively in the regenerating rat liver system in the presence and absence of the cyclophosphamide derivative mafosfamide. We demonstrate a mafosfamide-induced inhibition of maximum histone acetyltransferase activity followed by a second elevation of enzyme activity and an accompanying total suppression of DNA synthesis for 7-8 h. The maximum of histone acetyltransferase activity, in parallel with an elevated acetylation in vivo, the consecutive replacement of histone H1(0) amd initiation of replication occur sequentially in the presence and absence of mafosfamide, but with a temporary delay of 7-8 h. Our data indicate that modifications of histone acetyltransferase (EC 2.3.1.48) activity do not significantly influence the acetylation patterns of histones H3 and H4. The mafosfamide-induced change of histone acetyltransferase activity and acetylation in vivo, the shift of histone H1(0) exchange and the consecutive transition of initiation of replication suggest that these three events might be functionally related.

Replication-linked histone acetylation in rat liver tissue is sensitive to alkylating agents

The effect of alkylating agents on histone acetyltransferase (EC 2.3.1.48) activity and thymidine incorporation was investigated in benign and malignant proliferating rat liver tissue and compared with the effect in normal non-proliferating rat liver tissue. In both, benign and malignant proliferating tissue, but not in quiescent tissue, the histone acetylation is depressed by alkylating agents and this depression correlates with the inhibition of the thymidine incorporation. This effect suggests that the depression of the replication associated histone acetylation may be an important factor for the antiproliferative activity of alkylating agents.