The immobilized movement proteins of two tobamoviruses form stable ribonucleoprotein complexes with full-length viral genomic RNA

Study of rubella candidate vaccine based on a structurally modified plant virus

A novel rubella candidate vaccine based on a structurally modified plant virus - spherical particles (SPs) - was developed. SPs generated by the thermal remodelling of the tobacco mosaic virus are promising platforms for the development of vaccines. SPs combine unique properties: biosafety, stability, high immunogenicity and the effective adsorption of antigens. We assembled in vitro and characterised complexes (candidate vaccine) based on SPs and the rubella virus recombinant antigen. The candidate vaccine induced a strong humoral immune response against rubella. The IgG isotypes ratio indicated the predominance of IgG1 which plays a key role in immunity to natural rubella infection. The immune response was generally directed against the rubella antigen within the complexes. We suggest that SPs can act as a platform (depot) for the rubella antigen, enhancing specific immune response. Our results demonstrate that SPs-antigen complexes can be an effective and safe candidate vaccine against rubella.

Immunogenic compositions assembled from tobacco mosaic virus-generated spherical particle platforms and foreign antigens

We reported recently that RNA-free spherical particles (SPs) generated by thermal remodelling of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) are capable of binding GFP to their surface. Here, we show that SPs represent a universal particle platform that can form compositions by binding a diversity of various foreign proteins/epitopes of viral and non-viral origin to their surface. Numerous molecules of a foreign protein linked to the SP surface were revealed by immunogold electron microscopy. Several SP-based compositions were obtained containing one of the following foreign antigens: antigenic determinant A of rubella virus E1 glycoprotein; a recombinant protein containing the M2e epitope of influenza virus A protein M2; a recombinant antigen consisting of three epitopes of influenza virus A haemagglutinin; potato virus X (PVX) coat protein (CP); BSA; and PVX CP fused with the epitope of plum pox virus CP. The ‘mixed’ compositions could be also assembled by binding two different foreign antigens to each of the SPs. Immunogenicity of foreign antigens adsorbed or linked covalently to SPs in the SP-based compositions was examined. The antigenic specificity of foreign antigens was retained, whereas their immunogenicity increased significantly. It was inferred that SPs exhibit immunopotentiating activity, in particular in the form of compositions comprising SP and foreign antigen linked covalently to their surface by formaldehyde.

Probing interactions between plant virus movement proteins and nucleic acids

Most plant viruses move between plant cells with the help of their movement proteins (MPs). MPs are multifunctional proteins, and one of their functions is almost invariably binding to nucleic acids. Presumably, the MP-nucleic acid interaction is directly involved in formation of nucleoprotein complexes that function as intermediates in the cell-to-cell transport of many plant viruses. Thus, when studying a viral MP, it is important to determine whether or not it binds nucleic acids, and to characterize the hallmark parameters of such binding, i.e., preference for single- or double-stranded nucleic acids and binding cooperativity and sequence specificity. Here, we present two major experimental approaches, native gel mobility shift assay and ultra violet (UV) light cross-linking, for detection and characterization of MP binding to DNA and RNA molecules. We also describe protocols for purification of recombinant viral MPs over-expressed in bacteria and production of different DNA and RNA probes for these binding assays.

Mutations in the central domain of potato virus X TGBp2 eliminate granular vesicles and virus cell-to-cell trafficking

Most RNA viruses remodel the endomembrane network to promote virus replication, maturation, or egress. Rearrangement of cellular membranes is a crucial component of viral pathogenesis. The PVX TGBp2 protein induces vesicles of the granular type to bud from the endoplasmic reticulum network. Green fluorescent protein (GFP) was fused to the PVX TGBp2 coding sequence and inserted into the viral genome and into pRTL2 plasmids to study protein subcellular targeting in the presence and absence of virus infection. Mutations were introduced into the central domain of TGBp2, which contains a stretch of conserved amino acids. Deletion of a 10-amino-acid segment (m2 mutation) overlapping the segment of conserved residues eliminated the granular vesicle and inhibited virus movement. GFP-TGBp2m2 proteins accumulated in enlarged vesicles. Substitution of individual conserved residues in the same region similarly inhibited virus movement and caused the mutant GFP-TGBp2 fusion proteins to accumulate in enlarged vesicles. These results identify a novel element in the PVX TGBp2 protein which determines vesicle morphology. In addition, the data indicate that vesicles of the granular type induced by TGBp2 are necessary for PVX plasmodesmata transport.

A new cell-to-cell transport model for Potexviruses

In the last five years, we have gained significant insight into the role of the Potexvirus proteins in virus movement and RNA silencing. Potexviruses require three movement proteins, named triple gene block (TGB)p1, TGBp2, and TGBp3, and the viral coat protein (CP) to facilitate viral cell-to-cell and vascular transport. TGBp1 is a multifunctional protein that has RNA helicase activity, promotes translation of viral RNAs, increases plasmodesmal size exclusion limits, and suppresses RNA silencing. TGBp2 and TGBp3 are membrane-binding proteins. CP is required for genome encapsidation and forms ribonucleoprotein complexes along with TGBp1 and viral RNA. This review considers the functions of the TGB proteins, how they interact with each other and CP, and how silencing suppression might be linked to viral transport. A new model of the mechanism for Potexvirus transport is proposed.

Turnip vein-clearing virus, from pathogen to host expression profile

SUMMARY Taxonomy: Turnip vein-clearing virus (TVCV) is a member of subgroup 3 of the Tobamovirus genus and is thus a member of the alphavirus-like supergroup of positive sense RNA-containing viruses. Physical properties: Virions, typical of tobamoviruses, are rod-shaped and consist of a single species of four-helix bundle capsid proteins of 17 kDa helically arranged around a 6.3 knt RNA which accounts for 5% of the virion mass. Virions are stable for years. Hosts: Members of the crucifer family are excellent hosts. Particularly noteworthy is that hosts include the model plant for molecular genetics, Arabidopsis thaliana. No non-mechanical vectors of transmission are known.

Translational activation of encapsidated potato virus X RNA by coat protein phosphorylation

Previously we showed that encapsidated potato virus X (PVX) RNA is nontranslatable in vitro, but can be converted into a translatable form after binding to PVX particles of PVX-coded movement protein, the product of the first gene of triple gene block (TGBp1). Here we report that a similar effect occurs via in situ phosphorylation of the PVX coat protein (CP) by Ser/Thr protein kinase (PK) C, the mixture of casein kinases I and II or by cytoplasmic PK(s) from Nicotiana glutinosa leaves. Immunochemical analyses indicated that phosphorylation induced conformational changes in PVX CP. The N-terminal region of the PVX CP, rich in Ser and Thr residues, is exposed at the virion surface and can be removed by treatment with trypsin. We showed that (i) trypsin treatment removed the bulk of (32)P-radioactivity from in situ phosphorylated PVX CP, (ii) PVX containing N-terminally truncated CP (PVX-Ptd) failed to be translationally activated by phosphorylation, and (iii) the specific infectivity of PVX-Ptd was reduced. However, the PVX-Ptd RNA remained intact and PVX-Ptd could be translationally activated by the PVX MP TGBp1. We hypothesize that phosphorylation of the parental PVX by cytoplasmic PK(s) in vivo renders PVX RNA translatable in primary inoculated cells, whereas translational activation of the progeny virions destined for plasmodesmata trafficking is triggered by TGBp1.

Phosphorylation down-regulates the RNA binding function of the coat protein of potato virus A

Plant viruses encode movement proteins (MPs) to facilitate transport of their genomes from infected into neighboring healthy cells through plasmodesmata. Growing evidence suggests that specific phosphorylation events can regulate MP functions. The coat protein (CP) of potato virus A (PVA; genus Potyvirus) is a multifunctional protein involved both in virion assembly and virus movement. Labeling of PVA-infected tobacco leaves with [(33)P]orthophosphate demonstrated that PVA CP is phosphorylated in vivo. Competition assays established that PVA CP and the well characterized 30-kDa MP of tobacco mosaic virus (genus Tobamovirus) are phosphorylated in vitro by the same Ser/Thr kinase activity from tobacco leaves. This activity exhibits a strong preference for Mn(2+) over Mg(2+), can be inhibited by micromolar concentrations of Zn(2+) and Cd(2+), and is not Ca(2+)-dependent. Tryptic phosphopeptide mapping revealed that PVA CP was phosphorylated by this protein kinase activity on multiple sites. In contrast, PVA CP was not phosphorylated when packaged into virions, suggesting that the phosphorylation sites are located within the RNA binding domain and not exposed on the surface of the virion. Furthermore, two independent experimental approaches demonstrated that the RNA binding function of PVA CP is strongly inhibited by phosphorylation. From these findings, we suggest that protein phosphorylation represents a possible mechanism regulating formation and/or stability of viral ribonucleoproteins in planta.

A novel function for a ubiquitous plant enzyme pectin methylesterase: the host-cell receptor for the tobacco mosaic virus movement protein

Plant virus-encoded movement proteins promote viral spread between plant cells via plasmodesmata. The movement is assumed to require a plasmodesmata targeting signal to interact with still unidentified host factors presumably located on plasmodesmata and cell walls. The present work indicates that a ubiquitous cell wall-associated plant enzyme pectin methylesterase of Nicotiana tabacum L. specifically binds to the movement protein encoded by tobacco mosaic virus. We also show that pectin methylesterase is an RNA binding protein. These data suggest that pectin methylesterase is a host cell receptor involved in cell-to-cell movement of tobacco mosaic virus.

Phosphorylation of tobacco mosaic virus movement protein abolishes its translation repressing ability

Previously we showed that the ribonucleoprotein complexes (RNPs) of the TMV 30-kDa movement protein (MP) with TMV RNA are nontranslatable in vitro and noninfectious to protoplasts, but are infectious to intact plants. It has been suggested that MP-TMV RNA complexes could be converted into the translatable and replicatable form in planta in the course of passage through plasmodesmata (Karpova et al., 1997, Virology 230, 11-21). The role of TMV MP phosphorylation was investigated in terms of its capacity to modulate the translation-repressing ability of the MP. Phosphorylation of the TMV MP, either before or after RNP complex formation, caused a conversion of nontranslatable MP-RNA complexes into a form that was translatable in vitro and infectious to protoplasts and plants.

Replication in the phloem is not necessary for efficient vascular transport of tobacco mosaic tobamovirus

Plant viruses move systemically from one leaf to another via phloem. However, the viral functions needed for systemic movement are not fully elucidated. An experimental system was designed to study the effects of low temperature on the vascular transport of the tobacco mosaic tobamovirus (TMV). Vascular transport of TMV from lower inoculated leaves to upper non-inoculated leaves via a stem segment kept at low temperature (4 degrees C) was not affected. On the other hand, several experiments were performed on tobacco leaves to demonstrate that virus replication did not occur at the same temperature. The data suggest that replication of TMV in the phloem of wild-type tobacco plants is not necessary for the vascular transport of TMV, and that the virus moves with photoassimilates as suggested previously.

Domains of the TMV movement protein involved in subcellular localization

To identify and map functionally important regions of the tobacco mosaic virus movement protein, deletions of three amino acids were introduced at intervals of 10 amino acids throughout the protein. Mutations located between amino acids 1 and 160 abolished the capacity of the protein to transport virus from cell to cell, while some of the mutations in the C-terminal third of the protein permitted function. Despite extensive tests, no examples were found of intermolecular complementation between mutants, suggesting that function requires each movement protein molecule to be fully competent. Many of the mutants were fused to green fluorescent protein, and their subcellular localizations were determined by fluorescence microscopy in infected plants and protoplasts. Most mutants lost the ability to accumulate in one or more of the multiple subcellular sites targeted by wild-type movement protein, suggesting that specific functional domains were disrupted. The order in which accumulation at subcellular sites occurs during infection does not represent a targeting pathway. Association of the movement protein with microtubules or with plasmodesmata can occur in the absence of other associations. The region of the protein around amino acids 9-11 may be involved in targeting the protein to cortical bodies (probably associated with the endoplasmic reticulum) and to plasmodesmata. The region around residues 49-51 may be involved in co-alignment of the protein with microtubules. The region around residues 88-101 appears to play a role in targeting to both the cortical bodies and microtubules. Thus, the movement protein contains independently functional domains.

Nontranslatability and dissimilar behavior in plants and protoplasts of viral RNA and movement protein complexes formed in vitro

It was found that the fusion (His)6-movement proteins (MPs) of two tobamoviruses (TMV UI and a crucifer-infecting tobamovirus, crTMV) were efficient nonspecific translational repressors. The in vitro translation of viral RNAs was blocked by incomplete 30K MP-RNA complexes formed at the MP:RNA molar ratios of 100-150:1. Similar results were obtained with the barley stripe mosaic hordeivirus (BSMV)-encoded 58K MP; however, the translation inhibiting activity of the 58K MP was manifested only in the presence of magnesium. By contrast, the 25K MP of potato virus X (PVX) was incapable of forming MP-RNA complexes under experimental conditions used and did not inhibit in vitro translation. The translation repressing ability correlated with the level of MP affinity to RNA. The complexes of the 30K MP and 58K MP with TMV RNA were not infectious in isolated protoplasts; however, they were infectious in indicator plants. Reduction of MP affinity to RNA resulted in translatability of MP-TMV RNA complexes that apparently was due to their destabilization. Thus, the deletion mutant DEL4 MP formed MP-TMV RNA complexes that were translatable in vitro, infectious to protoplasts and plants. In contrast to this, the complexes of TMV RNA with the mammalian RNA-binding protein p50 were nontranslatable and noninfectious to either protoplasts or intact plants. These results implied that nontranslatable MP-RNA complexes which could not replicate in the primary infected cells were converted into a translatable and replicatable form in the course of passage through plasmodesmata in planta.