Stable and reversible electrochemistry of cytochrome c on bare electrodes Part 1. Effect of ionic strength

Molecularly imprinted electrochemical sensor for the ultrasensitive detection of cytochrome c

Cytochrome c (Cyt c) is an important biomarker for the early stage of apoptosis that plays a role in the diagnosis and therapy of several diseases including cancer. Here, an electrochemical sensor based on molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) for the ultrasensitive detection of Cyt c is studied. It is prepared by electropolymerization of o-phenylenediamine in the presence of Cyt c as template, followed by solvent extraction, resulting in the formation of Cyt c recognition sites. The MIP is characterised by cyclic voltammetry and differential pulse voltammetry, using ferrocenecarboxylic acid as redox probe. Voltammetric data indicates that the MIP-sensor behaves as an electrode with partially blocked surface. The partition isotherm obtained fits the Langmuir model, indicating a high affinity for Cyt c, with an association constant K_a = 5 × 10 ¹¹ M^-1. DPV measurements allow to achieve extremely high analytical sensitivity and low detection limit, in the femtomolar range, with negligible unspecific adsorption. Satisfactory analytical recovery tests performed in the presence of possible interfering proteins and in diluted human serum confirmed the selectivity of the MIP-sensor as well as its potential applicability for real samples analysis.

Conformational transitions of cytochrome c in sub-micron-sized capsules at air/buffer interface

This work presents the design of sub-micron-sized capsules of Cytochrome c (cyt c) in the range 300-350 nm and the conformational transitions of the protein that occur when the films of these capsules spread at the air/buffer interface are subjected to repeated compression-expansion cycles. Steady state fluorescence, time-resolved fluorescence, and circular dichroic (CD) spectra have been used to study the highly compact native conformation (70% helicity) of the protein in the capsules and its stability has been analyzed using cyclic voltammetry. The capsules have been characterized using zeta sizer and high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM). Surface concentration-surface pressure (Γ-π) isotherms of the films of the capsules spread at air/buffer interface following compression-expansion show destabilizing effect on cyt c. FTIR and CD spectra of these films skimmed from the surface show that the protein transitions gradually from its native helical to an anomalous beta sheet aggregated state. This results from a competition between stabilizing hydrated polar segments of the protein in the capsule and destabilizing nonspecific hydrophobic interactions arising at the air/buffer interface. This 2D model could further our understanding of the spatial and temporal roles of proteins in confined spaces and also in the design of new drug delivery vehicles using proteins.

Nanoscopic and redox characterization of engineered horse cytochrome C chemisorbed on a bare gold electrode

In this paper, we exploit the potential offered by site-directed mutagenesis to achieve direct adsorption of horse cyt c on a bare gold electrode surface. To this issue, the side chain T102 has been replaced by a cysteine. T102 is close to the surface exposed C-terminal residue (E104), therefore the T102C mutation is expected to generate an exposed cysteine side chain able to facilitate protein binding to the electrode via the sulphur atom (analogously to what observed for yeast iso-1-cyt c). Scanning Tunnelling and Tapping Mode Atomic Force Microscopy measurements show that the T102C mutant stably adsorbs on an Au(111) surface and retains the morphological characteristics of the native form. Cyclic voltammetry reveals that the adsorbed variant is electroactive; however, the heterogeneous electron transfer with the electrode surface is slower than that observed for yeast iso-1-cyt c. We ascribe it to differences in the tertiary architecture of the two proteins, characterized by different flexibility and stability. In particular, the region where the N- and C-terminal helices get in contact (and where the mutation occurs) is analyzed in detail, since the interactions between these two helices are considered crucial for the stability of the overall protein fold.

A Colloidal Au Monolayer Modulates the Conformation and Orientation of a Protein at the Electrode/Solution Interface

The orientation and conformation of adsorbed cytochrome c (cyt c) at the interface between an electrode modified with colloidal Au and a solution were studied by electrochemical, spectroscopic, and spectroelectrochemical techniques. The results indicate that the colloidal Au monolayer formed via preformation of an organic self-assembled monolayer (SAM) can increase the electronic coupling between the SAM and cyt c in the same manner as bifunctional molecular bridges, one functional group of which is bound to the electrode surface while the other interacts with the protein surface. The approach of cyt c to the modified electrode/solution interface can be assisted by strong interactions of the intrinsic charge of colloidal particles with cyt c, while the heme pocket remains almost unchanged due to the screening effect of the negatively charged field created by the intrinsic charge. The conformational changes of cyt c induced by its adsorption at a bare glassy carbon electrode/solution interface and the effect of the electric field on the ligation state of the heme can be avoided at the colloidal-Au-modified electrode/solution interface. Finally, a possible model for the adsorption orientation of cyt c at the colloidal-Au-modified electrode/solution interface is proposed.

Topological and Electron-Transfer Properties of Yeast Cytochrome c Adsorbed on Bare Gold Electrodes

The redox metalloprotein yeast cytochrome c was directly self-chemisorbed on "bare" gold electrodes through the free sulfur-containing group Cys102. Topological, spectroscopic, and electron transfer properties of the immobilised molecules were investigated by in situ scanning probe microscopy and cyclic voltammetry. Atomic force and scanning tunnelling microscopy revealed individual protein molecules adsorbed on the gold substrate, with no evidence of aggregates. The adsorbed proteins appear to be firmly bound to gold and display dimensions in good agreement with crystallographic data. Cyclic voltammetric analysis showed that up to 84% of the electrode surface is functionalised with electroactive proteins whose measured redox midpoint potential is in good agreement with the formal potential. Our results clearly indicate that this variant of cytochrome c is adsorbed on bare gold electrodes with preservation of morphological properties and redox functionality.

Direct electrochemistry of cytochrome C at nanocrystalline boron-doped diamond

Direct electron transfer of horse heart cytochrome c is measured at a nanocrystalline boron-doped diamond thin-film electrode. A quasi-reversible, diffusion-controlled cyclic voltammetric response is observed for untreated diamond. The peak currents change linearly with the concentration, and importantly, there is no electrode fouling. The results, observed for a hydrogen-terminated and uncharged surface, (i.e., no ionizable carbon-oxygen functional groups), raise interesting questions about the necessary surface interactions of cytochrome c for relatively rapid electrode kinetics.

Ion-exchange voltammetry and electrocatalytic sensing capabilities of cytochrome c at polyestersulfonated ionomer coated glassy carbon electrodes

The incorporation and electrochemical behaviour of cytochrome c (Cyt C) at glassy carbon electrodes modified with the polyestersulfonated ionomer Eastman AQ 55 are examined. The presence of the polyelectrolytic coating allows the preconcentration of the protein within the polymer and the observation of the direct electrochemistry of Cyt C at the modified electrode without addition of promoters or mediators in the solutions. The dependence of voltammetric signals on typical parameters such as solution pH and nature or concentration of the supporting electrolyte supports the ion-exchange nature of the incorporation process. The relevant role of the permselectivity of the polymeric modifier is highlighted also by the study of electrocatalytic processes which take place at the modified electrode loaded with Cyt C. No electrocatalytic effect is observed when the electrogenerated dication (ferricenylmethyl)trimethylammonium is present as possible oxidant. On the contrary, electrocatalytic current enhancements are observed for anionic substrates such as Fe(CN)(6)(3-) (oxidant) and ascorbate (reductant). Catalytic currents increase with the substrate concentration, with higher sensitivity for Fe(CN)(6)(3-). Due to ionic repulsion, the reaction with anions occurs at the polymer-solution interface. In the case of chemically unstable substrates, such as superoxide anion, ionic repulsion slow down the approach rate of the substrate so that spontaneous decomposition can prevail over the reaction with Cyt C incorporated in the coating.

Direct voltammetric investigation of the electrochemical properties of human hemoglobin: relevance to physiological redox chemistry

Voltammetric measurements on solutions of human hemoglobin using gold electrodes modified with omega-hydroxyalkanethiols have yielded the first direct measure of the reorganization energy of the protein. The value obtained based on extrapolation of the experimentally measured currents, 0.76 eV, is independent of pH (i.e., over the physiologically relevant rage, pH 6.8-7.4) and is remarkably similar to values obtained for myoglobin. This result is perhaps surprising given the marked dependence of the measured reduction potential of hemoglobin on pH (i.e., the redox Bohr effect). Electron transfer rates from the electrode to hemoglobin were also measured. Using similarly measured heterogeneous electron-transfer rates for cytochrome b(5), it is possible to predict the magnitude of the homogeneous electron-transfer rate from cytochrome b(5) to methemoglobin using a formalism developed by Marcus. These predicted rates are in reasonable agreement with reported rates of this physiological reaction based on stopped-flow kinetics experiments. These results suggest that the intrinsic electroreactivity of these heme proteins is sufficient to account for physiologically observed rates. Residual differences between homogeneous phase kinetics and those predicted by heterogeneous phase reactions are suggested to be due to small reductions in the outer-sphere reorganization energy of both component proteins which arise due to solvent exclusion at the interface between the two proteins in complex.

The heme-containing N-fragment (residues 1-56) of cytochrome c is a bis-histidine functional system

The structural and redox properties of a heme-containing fragment (1-56 residues) of cytochrome c have been investigated by spectroscopic (circular dichroism, electronic absorption, and EPR) and voltammetric techniques. The results indicate that the N-fragment lacks ordered secondary structure and has two histidines axially bound to the heme-iron (the native His18 and a misligated His26 or His33). Despite the absence of ordered secondary structure, the peptide chain shields the heme group from solvent, as shown by (i) the pK(a) of protonation of the nonnative histidine ligand (5.18 +/- 0.05), lower than that of the bis-histidine guanidine-unfolded cytochrome c (5.58 +/- 0.05), and (ii) the redox potential, E(o) = 0 +/- 5 mV versus NHE, close to that of bis-histidine cytochrome c mutants but less negative than that of bis-histidine complexes of microperoxidase with short peptides. The electroactive N-fragment may be taken as a "minichrome c" model, with interesting potential for application to biosensor technology; further, the system provides useful information for a deeper understanding of cytochrome c folding and structural/functional organization.

Electrochemical studies of cytochrome c disulfide at gold electrodes

The electrochemistry of disulfide in cytochrome c on gold electrodes was reported. The observed electrochemical response was used to explain why the electrochemical reaction of cytochrome c is irreversible at gold electrodes. Disulfide bonds in cytochrome c were strongly adsorbed onto the surface of gold electrodes and caused slow rate of electron transfer of the heme group. It was found that the presence of disulfides in cytochrome c was responsible for the lack of electrochemical response of the heme group on a gold electrode. The mechanisms for this effect were studied using electrochemistry and photoelectron spectroscopy.

Electrochemical behaviour of cytochrome c at electrically heated microelectrodes

The structural changes in cytochrome c with temperature have been been followed using a recently developed electrically-heated microelectrode sensor. Differential pulse voltammetry was used to perform electrochemical measurements of cytochrome c oxidation at different temperatures at heated bare gold electrodes contained in phosphate-buffered cytochrome c solution at room temperature. The voltammetric response shows the onset of unfolding and a marked dependence of the signal on electrode temperature. This augurs well for applications of heated electrodes as local probes in the study of the temperature dependence of electron transfer processes of other redox proteins, avoiding problems of bulk deterioration.