Palmar sweating and the presence of an audience

Comparison of Three Measures of Pre-Competition Arousal

Arousal was assessed at a practice session and immediately prior to a competitive volleyball match using three measures, the sudorimeter and Palmar Sweat Index measures of palmar sweating and a state-anxiety inventory. Multivariate analysis of variance indicated a significant increase in arousal from practice to pre-competition All three measures for 18 women increased, but low intercorrelations suggested idiosyncratic patterns of arousal.

Changes in the number of active sweat glands (palmar sweat index, PSI) during a distressing film

Changes of the number of active palmar sweat glands (palmar sweat index, PSI) as assessed by the plastic finger-print method were studied in two groups of female students (n = 21 each). In both samples experiments involved an initial adaptation period, several relaxation phases and an activation period (presentation of a movie). The film was shown 10 min earlier in Group 1, for which in turn follow-up was twice as long. Prints for determination of PSI were taken every 2.5 min from the forefinger and ring finger of the left hand, and recordings of SCL, SF (number of spontaneous fluctuations) and HR were made during the corresponding intervals. Both within- and between-groups comparisons showed an increase of PSI during the activation period and a decrease afterwards. Similar effects were observed for SCL, SF and affective and somatic arousal assessed by a state questionnaire. A decrease of PSI and parameters of electrodermal activity during the first measurements indicated an initial reaction to the assessment procedure itself. Both within-subject and between-subjects correlations between PSI from both fingers showed high parallel test reliabilities, while correlations with electrodermal variables indicated a common physiological basis.

Changes in the palmar sweat index during mental arithmetic

This study investigated the influence of activation on the number of active sweat glands (palmar sweat index, PSI), as assessed by the plastic impression method. Subjects were 50 male students, assigned to two groups. The experiment involved 5 phases: an initial adaptation for 6 min in both groups (Phase I), 3 relaxation periods for 10 min (Phases II, IV and V in Group 1, Phases II, III and V in Group 2), and 10 min of mental arithmetic (Phase III in Group 1, Phase IV in Group 2). Prints were taken every 2.5 min from the left middle and forefinger, and skin conductance level (SCL), number of spontaneous fluctuations (SF) and heart rate (HR) were recorded for the corresponding intervals. PSI rose significantly during activation conditions and decreased afterwards. Accordingly, during Phase III values were higher in Group 1, whereas during Phase IV they were higher in Group 2. Decrease of PSI during the first measurements indicated that subjects probably react to the assessment procedure itself and that interpretable baseline values can only be obtained after several initial assessments. Correlations between PSI and electrodermal variables proved to be high within subjects, whereas correlations across subjects were lower.

Research note: young children's resolution of distress through play

It has been suggested that play is important to the young child as a means of resolving a distressing experience. Pre-school children were observed as they exhibited distress on the first day of school. High- and low-anxiety children were allowed either the opportunity for free play or participation in a story-reading session, each of which was performed in either the presence or absence of peers. The anxious children in the play condition were found to decrease in distress and their play was more solitary and imaginative in nature compared to other conditions.

The significance of nonsignificant findings

The replication by Landers et al. (1978) of the Martens' (1969) social-facilitation study is evaluated. The atypical constant error (CE) performance curve obtained in the Martens' study may diminish the external validity of the CE results, but not the internal validity. Furthermore, the validity of the AE results as well as the highly significant physiological corroborative data remain unscathed. Finally, the conclusions about social facilitation research reached by Landers et al. are questioned in light of their nonsignificant, noncorroborated, and statistically nonpowerful results.

Social Facilitation During the Initial Stage of Motor Learning

This study partially replicated Martens' (1969a) social-facilitation study of motor behavior. His very robust performance findings provided impressive confirmation for Zajonc's hypothesis, and his arousal findings have since been used as evidence for a nonlearned-drive basis for social facilitation. The present study also extended Martens' investigation by examining the separate and combined effects of an audience and videotape camera. The effects due to the presence of the audience and camera were not additive; instead, the audience detrimentally affected subjects' performance consistency and the camera resulted in more trials with errors greater than 30 msec after the performance criteria had been attained. Martens' most robust findings for constant error were not replicated, nor were some of his physiological arousal findings. His pattern of constant error results over all trials is atypical of known learning strategies that subjects use to reduce error over successive trials. Overall, audience effects accounted for only a very small portion of the variance.

An electromyographic study of apprehension about evaluation

Frontalis muscle tension was recorded from two groups of 10 Ss as they listened to a humorous recording in the presence of E. One group listened privately on headphones and the other listened to an external speaker, while E appeared to be inattentive in both conditions. The groups were matched on the basis of Ss' EMG resting levels and EMG gradients in previous sessions. Ss who listened privately experienced less apprehension over evaluation and lower levels of muscle tension during the first 4 min. of the recording. Group differences tended to diminish with time. The results are interpreted as support for social-facilitation drive theory.

Birth order and social facilitation of humor

College Ss were shown cartoons either alone with E or with 4 other Ss. While firstborns showed greater appreciation of humor in the group, later borns found the cartoons funnier in the individual condition. Overt signs of appreciation of humor are interpreted as resulting from firstborn Ss affiliative concerns and the lack of such concerns among later born Ss.