Effects of steroids with different endocrine profiles on the development, morphology and function of the bursa of Fabricius in chickens

Changes in estrogen receptor expression in the chick thymus during late embryonic development

In chickens, although estrogen receptors (ER) are reported to be associated with the immunological processes, detailed information about the differences in ER expression in the tissues related to the development of lymphocytes is not fully known, especially during the developmental stage. To learn more about this immunological relationship, we used semi-quantitative polymerase chain reaction method to detect the ER expression levels in the thymus tissues of chicks during the developmental stage. Furthermore, ER-expressing cells were detected by immunohistochemistry. The results of this study show that the expression level of ER increased on embryonic day 16 and decreased on day 20. Furthermore, ER expression was significantly higher in male than in female chickens at day 16. The increased expression on day 16 and decreased level on day 20 were also reproduced in the incidence of immunoreactive cells, although there was a 1-day delay in the elevated incidence of the cells. This study revealed the changes in ER expression and the incidence of ER-positive cells in the thymus of chickens during the developmental stage.

Effects of estrogen on estrogen receptor expression in the bursal cells of chick embryos and steroidogenic enzymes gene expression in the bursa: relevance of estrogen receptor and estrogen synthesis in the bursa of chick embryos

Estrogen has been reported to act on B cell genesis in the bursa of Fabricius of chick embryos. In this study, we attempted to demonstrate the hypothesis that B cell genesis is controlled by estrogen receptor (ER) in the bursal cells and steroidogenic enzymes synthesized in the bursa. We previously reported the presence of estrogen receptor α (ERα) in the bursa during the late stage of embryogenesis and an increase in the expression of ERα messenger RNA (mRNA) between the 13th day and 16th day. The number of ER-positive cells was maximal on the 16th day. In the present study, ER-positive cells in the bursa during the late stage of embryogenesis increased 4 h after β-estradiol treatment on the 14th to 18th day. The concentration of β-estradiol in the embryonic bursa increased. These results suggest that this stage of embryogenesis is critical in B cell development in the bursa in connection with the effect of estrogen treatment. Our findings also showed that the mRNA expression of five steroidogenic enzymes occurred in the bursa of chick embryos. These results suggest that estrogen is synthesized in the embryonic bursa and estrogen acts on the bursal cells in a paracrine fashion.

Comparison between steroid binding to membrane progesterone receptor alpha (mPRalpha) and to nuclear progesterone receptor: correlation with physicochemical properties assessed by comparative molecular field analysis and identification of mPRalpha-specific agonists

Recent results showing that the binding characteristics of 33 steroids for human membrane progesterone receptor alpha (hu-mPRalpha) differ from those for the nuclear progesterone receptor (nPR) suggest that hu-mPRalpha-specific agonists can be identified for investigating its physiological functions. The binding affinities of an additional 21 steroids for hu-mPRalpha were determined to explore the structure-activity relationships in more detail and to identify potent, specific mPRalpha agonists. Four synthetic progesterone derivatives with methyl or methylene groups on positions 18 or 19, 18a-methylprogesterone (18-CH(3)P4, Org OE 64-0), 13-ethenyl-18-norprogesterone (18-CH(2)P4, Org 33663-0), 19a-methylprogesterone (19-CH(3)P4, Org OD 13-0) and 10-ethenyl-19-norprogesterone (19-CH(2)P4, Org OD 02-0), showed similar or higher affinities than progesterone for hu-mPRalpha and displayed mPRalpha agonist activities in G-protein and MAP kinase activation assays. All four steroids also bound to the nPR in cytosolic fractions of MCF-7 cells. However, two compounds, 19-CH(2)P4 and 19-CH(3)P4, showed no nPR agonist activity in a nPR reporter assay and therefore are selective mPRalpha agonists suitable for physiological investigations. The structure-binding relationships of the combined series of 54 steroids for hu-mPRalpha deviated strikingly from those of a published set of 60 3-keto or 3-desoxy steroids for nPR. Close correlations were observed between the receptor binding affinities of the steroids and their physicochemical properties calculated by comparative molecular field analysis (CoMFA) for both hu-mPRalpha and nPR. A comparison of the CoMFA field graphs for the two receptors revealed several differences in the structural features required for binding to hu-mPRalpha and nPR which could be exploited to develop additional mPR-specific ligands.

Effects of castration and testosterone treatment on the development and involution of the bursa of fabricius and the thymus in the Japanese quail

We investigated the effects of castration on the development of lymphoid organs (bursa of Fabricius, thymus, and spleen) in the Japanese quail during 4-8 weeks of age under a long photoperiod (16L:8D) and the effect of testosterone implantation on the involution of the lymphoid organs under long (16L:8D) and short (8L:16D) photoperiods. Under 16L:8D, the bursa of Fabricius and thymus in intact quail grew rapidly and reached a peak at 6 weeks of age and regressed thereafter. In contrast, development of the lymphoid organs in castrated quail was well correlated with the body growth. Testosterone treatment induced a significant reduction in relative bursal weight to body weight at 6 weeks of age under 16L:8D and 8 weeks of age under 16L:8D and 8L:16D, in relative thymus weight at 6 weeks of age under 16L:8D and 8L:16D, and in relative spleen weight at 6 weeks of age under 8L:16D. Thus, we conclude that gonadal hormones play an important role in the development and involution of lymphoid organs.

Effects of gender and sex steroids on the immune response

Elevated immune responses and the higher incidence of autoimmune diseases in female (compared to male) humans and animals have been known for a long time. However, the scientific interest in this interrelationship has been limited both amongst immunologists and endocrinologists. It is mainly in the last ten years that investigations in this area have been intensifying. A number of fairly recent review articles confirm the increased interest in various aspects of this "interdiscipline" [1-4]. In the present paper we should like to make a new assessment of the state of knowledge. We shall firstly discuss heteroimmune response differences between males and females in humans, rodents and birds and then the roles of gender and sex hormones in autoimmune disease in various species. The general conclusions are the following. Gender and sex hormones have a clear effect on various hetero- and auto-immune responses but the mechanisms of action are still unknown; starting from sex hormones, steroids can be devised which have favourable effects on immune processes but lack undesirable hormonal effects; such hormonomimetics should be, in principle, applicable for the treatment of autoimmune disease.

The multi-factorial pathogenesis of autoimmune disease

Development of organ-specific autoimmune diseases depends on both an abnormal immune regulation and a genetically determined primary susceptibility of the target organ to the autoimmune attack. In addition to the essential genetically determined prerequisites there are also facultative, modulating factors that influence the outcome of an autoimmune disease. This concept is exemplified in the Obese strain (OS) chicken model which develops a spontaneous autoimmune thyroiditis closely resembling human Hashimoto disease. Three modulating factors are specifically addressed, viz. (a) the lower threshold of OS thyroid epithelial cells for the gamma-interferon-induced MHC class II antigen expression as compared to normal controls, (b) the decreased glucocorticoid tonus of the OS and (c) the presence of a new endogenous virus (ev 22) locus in the OS that has so far not been found in any normal strain and which seems to influence the glucocorticoid-mediated immunoregulatory process.