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Khedr EM, Gomaa AMS, Ahmed OG, Sayed HMM, Gamea A. Cognitive Impairment, P300, and Transforming Growth Factor β1 in Different Forms of Dementia. J Alzheimers Dis 2020; 78:837-845. [PMID: 33044184 DOI: 10.3233/jad-200885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There are currently few biomarkers to assist in early diagnosis of dementias. OBJECTIVE To distinguish between different dementias: Alzheimer's disease (AD), vascular dementia (VaD), and Parkinson's disease dementia (PDD) using simple neurophysiologic (P300) and laboratory markers (transforming growth factor β1 "TGF-β1"). METHODS The study included 15 patients for each type of dementia and 25 age- and sex-matched control subjects. Dementia patients were diagnosed according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 4th edition-revised (DSM-IV-R). Modified Mini-Mental State Examination (3MS), Memory Assessment Scale (MAS), P300, and TGF-β1 were examined for each participant. RESULTS There were no significant differences between groups as regard to age, sex, and education, social, and economic levels. Significant differences between groups were observed in registration and naming variables of the 3MS. Compared with the control group, P300 latency was prolonged in all groups, although to a greater extent in AD and PDD than in VaD. A serum level of TGF-β1 was significantly elevated in all groups but was significantly higher in AD and VaD than in PDD. 3MS tended to correlate with P300 more than TGF-β1, and to be stronger in AD than the other groups. CONCLUSION Measurements of P300 latency and serum levels of TGF-β1 can help distinguish AD, PDD, and VaD. P300 was more prolonged in AD and PDD than VaD whereas TGF-β1 was significantly higher in AD and VaD than PDD. Thus P300 and TGF-β1 may be useful biomarkers for detection and evaluation of the extent of cognitive dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eman M Khedr
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt
| | - Asmaa M S Gomaa
- Department of Medical Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt
| | - Omyma G Ahmed
- Department of Medical Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt
| | - Hanaa M M Sayed
- Department of Medical Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt
| | - Ayman Gamea
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, South Valley University, Qena, Egypt
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2
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Jafari Z, Kolb BE, Mohajerani MH. Auditory Dysfunction in Parkinson's Disease. Mov Disord 2020; 35:537-550. [PMID: 32052894 DOI: 10.1002/mds.28000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2019] [Revised: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
PD is a progressive and complex neurological disorder with heterogeneous symptomatology. PD is characterized by classical motor features of parkinsonism and nonmotor symptoms and involves extensive regions of the nervous system, various neurotransmitters, and protein aggregates. Extensive evidence supports auditory dysfunction as an additional nonmotor feature of PD. Studies indicate a broad range of auditory impairments in PD, from the peripheral hearing system to the auditory brainstem and cortical areas. For instance, research demonstrates a higher occurrence of hearing loss in early-onset PD and evidence of abnormal auditory evoked potentials, event-related potentials, and habituation to novel stimuli. Electrophysiological data, such as auditory P3a, also is suggested as a sensitive measure of illness duration and severity. Improvement in auditory responses following dopaminergic therapies also indicates the presence of similar neurotransmitters (i.e., glutamate and dopamine) in the auditory system and basal ganglia. Nonetheless, hearing impairments in PD have received little attention in clinical practice so far. This review summarizes evidence of peripheral and central auditory impairments in PD and provides conclusions and directions for future empirical and clinical research. © 2020 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahra Jafari
- Department of Neuroscience, Canadian Centre for Behavioural Neuroscience, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB, Canada.,Department of Basic Sciences in Rehabilitation, School of Rehabilitation Sciences, Iran University of Medical Science (IUMS), Tehran, Iran
| | - Bryan E Kolb
- Department of Neuroscience, Canadian Centre for Behavioural Neuroscience, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB, Canada
| | - Majid H Mohajerani
- Department of Neuroscience, Canadian Centre for Behavioural Neuroscience, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB, Canada
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3
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Yilmaz FT, Özkaynak SS, Barçin E. Contribution of auditory P300 test to the diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment in Parkinson's disease. Neurol Sci 2017; 38:2103-2109. [PMID: 28887694 DOI: 10.1007/s10072-017-3106-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2017] [Accepted: 08/31/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Abnormalities in auditory P300 test have been observed in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD). We aimed to investigate whether or not additional electrophysiological tests assist in making the clinical diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment in Parkinson's disease (PD-MCI), and we evaluated P300 changes in patients with non-demented PD and analyzed the correlation between the cognitive features and P300 changes. Twenty patients with PD who had been diagnosed with mild cognitive impairment (PD-MCI group) according to the Movement Disorder Society (MDS) 2012 PD-MCI level II criteria, 21 patients with PD without cognitive impairment (PD-Normal group), and 20 control subjects (control group) who were neurologically normal were examined by the standard auditory oddball paradigm. The N100, P200, N200, and P300 latencies and N100-P200, P200-N200, and N200-P300 amplitudes were measured and analyzed. P300 latencies recorded from Fz, Cz, and Pz and N200 latency recorded from Fz were significantly longer in the PD-MCI group than in the PD-Normal and the control group (respectively p < 0.001, p = 0.041). P300 amplitude recorded from Fz was significantly lower in PD-MCI group than those in the other groups (p = 0.038). While P300 was obtained in all patients in the PD-Normal and the control group, it was lost in 35% of PD-MCI patients. The results show that P300 provides a diagnostic tool for detecting PDMCI. We suggest that P300 prolongation and loss of P300 potential could be used as supportive parameter in the diagnosis of PD-MCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fikriye Tüter Yilmaz
- Department of Neurology, Antalya Training and Research Hospital, Varlık Mahallesi Kazım Karabekir Caddesi Soğuksu, 07100, Antalya, Turkey.
| | - Sehür Siber Özkaynak
- School of Medicine, Department of Neurology, Akdeniz University, Pınarbaşı Mahallesi, Akdeniz Üniversitesi Kampüsü, 07070, Antalya, Turkey
| | - Ebru Barçin
- School of Medicine, Department of Neurology, Akdeniz University, Pınarbaşı Mahallesi, Akdeniz Üniversitesi Kampüsü, 07070, Antalya, Turkey
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4
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Annanmaki T, Palmu K, Murros K, Partanen J. Altered N100-potential associates with working memory impairment in Parkinson's disease. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2017; 124:1197-1203. [PMID: 28710524 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-017-1758-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2017] [Accepted: 07/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The diagnosis of cognitive impairment and dementia often occurring with Parkinson's disease (PD) is still based on the clinical picture and neuropsychological examination. Ancillary methods to detect cognitive decline in these patients are, therefore, needed. Alterations in the latencies and amplitudes of evoked response potential (ERP) components N100 and P200 have been described in PD. Due to limited number of studies their relation to cognitive deficits in PD remains obscure. The present study was designed to examine if alterations in the N100- and P200-potentials associate with neuropsychological impairment in PD. EEG-ERP was conducted to 18 PD patients and 24 healthy controls. The patients underwent a thorough neuropsychological evaluation. The controls were screened for cognitive impairment with Consortium to Establish Alzheimer's disease (CERAD)-testing and a normal result were required to be included in the study. The N100-latency was prolonged in the patients compared to the controls (p = 0.05). In the patients, the N100 latency correlated significantly with a visual working memory task (p = 0.01). Also N100 latency was prolonged and N100 amplitude habituation diminished in the patients achieving poorly in this task. We conclude that prolonged N100-latency and diminished amplitude habituation associate with visual working memory impairment in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tua Annanmaki
- Clinical Neurosciences, Neurology, University of Helsinki and Jorvi Hospital of Helsinki University Hospital, Espoo, Finland.
| | - Kirsi Palmu
- Clinical Neurosciences, Clinical Neurophysiology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Espoo, Finland
| | - Kari Murros
- Clinical Neurosciences, Neurology, University of Helsinki and Jorvi Hospital of Helsinki University Hospital, Espoo, Finland
| | - Juhani Partanen
- Clinical Neurosciences, Clinical Neurophysiology, University of Helsinki and Jorvi Hospital of Helsinki University Hospital, Espoo, Finland
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5
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Event-related potentials and cognition in Parkinson’s disease: An integrative review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2016; 71:691-714. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2016] [Revised: 06/30/2016] [Accepted: 08/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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6
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Katsarou Z, Bostantjopoulou S, Kimiskidis V, Rossopoulos E, Kazis A. Auditory Event-Related Potentials in Parkinson's Disease in Relation to Cognitive Ability. Percept Mot Skills 2016; 98:1441-8. [PMID: 15291236 DOI: 10.2466/pms.98.3c.1441-1448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Auditory event-related potentials were evaluated in 45 nondemented patients with mild to moderate Parkinson's disease and 40 matched normal controls. All patients were neuropsychologically assessed by means of the Raven Colored Progressive Matrices, four subtests of the Wechsler Memory Scale (Digit Span Forward, Logical Memory, Visual Memory, Associate Learning), and the Wisconsin Card-sorting Test. The P300 component of the auditory event-related potentials was significantly prolonged in the patients with Parkinson's disease. Correlations between P300 latency and neuropsychological measures showed significant associations with lower performance on the Raven Colored Progressive Matrices and the Wisconsin Card-sorting Test. Our results indicate that for patients with mild to moderate Parkinson's disease subtle changes in cognitive abilities may be reflected as P300 prolongation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Katsarou
- 3rd Department of Neurology, University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece.
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7
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Shin J. The interrelationship between movement and cognition: θ rhythm and the P300 event-related potential. Hippocampus 2010; 21:744-52. [PMID: 20865727 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.20792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/09/2010] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The relationship among brain electrophysiological activity, motor activity, and cognition has been a matter of great interest. For example, it has been discussed whether hippocampal theta rhythm reflects motor activity or cognitive activity, whereas it is widely accepted that the P300 event-related potential (ERP) reflects cognitive processes such as updating working memory. Here, we investigated the interrelationships among motor activity, hippocampal theta rhythm, and hippocampal P300 ERP using electrophysiological and behavioral data recorded from rats performing an auditory discrimination task (i.e., the auditory oddball paradigm) in a chamber with and without a running-wheel. We found that the hippocampal theta rhythm generated during locomotion codes information about self-motion, and event-related increases in hippocampal theta rhythm observed when rats performed the auditory discrimination cognitive task reflect a change in motor behavior after learning the cognitive task. Interestingly, the hippocampal P300 ERP occurred coincidently with increases in the power and frequency of hippocampal theta rhythm. In addition, we found that changes in theta rhythm observed during spontaneous wheel running without performing a cognitive task as well as when performing the cognitive task are associated with changes in delta- and gamma-band EEG activities. These major findings are discussed with respect to current hypotheses regarding P300 ERP and theta-, delta-, and gamma-band EEG activities in brain functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonghan Shin
- Neuroscience Research Institute, Gachon University of Medicine and Science, Incheon, Republic of Korea.
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Scalzo P, Kümmer A, Cardoso F, Teixeira AL. Serum levels of interleukin-6 are elevated in patients with Parkinson's disease and correlate with physical performance. Neurosci Lett 2009; 468:56-8. [PMID: 19857551 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2009.10.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2009] [Revised: 10/14/2009] [Accepted: 10/20/2009] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Some studies have demonstrated altered circulating levels of cytokines, including IL-6, in Parkinson's disease (PD), implying a possible involvement of inflammatory and immune-mediated mechanisms in its pathogenesis. Moreover, the increased production of inflammatory cytokines has been associated with cognitive impairment and poor physical performance in the elderly. We compared serum levels of IL-6 in 44 PD patients and 22 healthy subjects, and correlated them with PD specific instruments and functional tests. Serum levels of IL-6 were significantly increased in PD (p=0.015). There was no correlation between serum levels of IL-6 and instruments traditionally used to assess PD severity. However, we found that PD patients with higher serum levels of IL-6 spent more time at functional mobility tests and had lower gait speed. Also, these patients had major problems to keep balance during functional tasks that required postural changes and that had a reduced base support. These results showed that high levels of IL-6 can be involved with an acceleration of muscle catabolism leading to sarcopenia, therefore contributing to weakness and fatigue, and may also be associated with functional disability in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Scalzo
- Laboratory of Immunopharmacology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Brazil
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9
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Course of cognitive decline in Parkinson's disease: a meta-analysis. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2007; 13:920-32. [PMID: 17942010 DOI: 10.1017/s1355617707071160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2006] [Revised: 04/03/2007] [Accepted: 04/17/2007] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
A meta-analysis was conducted on 25 longitudinal studies involving 901 initially non-demented Parkinson's disease (PD) patients to examine the magnitude of decline across multiple cognitive domains associated with disease progression. Pooled effect sizes reflecting the standardized difference between baseline and follow-up neuropsychological performance were calculated for 8 cognitive domains using a random-effects model. Relatively small effect sizes were found across all cognitive domains (d = .00 - .40). During a mean follow-up interval of 29 months, significant declines were detected in global cognitive ability (d = .40), visuoconstructive skills (d = .32), and memory (d = .29). Age showed a significant relation with decline in global cognitive ability and memory. Lower educational level was associated with greater decline in all cognitive domains. Studies with longer follow-up intervals yielded larger effect sizes for global cognitive ability. In non-demented PD patients, changes in cognitive functions over time appear to be modest. Educational level, age, and length of the follow-up interval are likely to affect the magnitude of decline in several domains. Methodological flaws, such as selection bias and uncontrolled practice effects, may have caused underestimation of the true extent of decline.
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Matsui H, Nishinaka K, Oda M, Kubori T, Udaka F. Auditory event-related potentials in Parkinson's disease: prominent correlation with attention. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2007; 13:394-8. [PMID: 17329143 DOI: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2006.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2006] [Revised: 10/30/2006] [Accepted: 12/13/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Auditory P300 has been reported to be abnormal in demented patients with Parkinson's disease. However, it is still controversial which factors in Parkinson's disease influence P300 parameters. METHODS Forty patients with Parkinson's disease were included. Patients were divided into two groups: patients with dementia (PDD) and without dementia (PDND). An 'odd-ball' paradigm was used for auditory event-related potentials. RESULTS P300 latency was markedly delayed in PDD patients. Age and DRS1 (attention) were the most important factors influencing P300 latency. CONCLUSIONS Although there have been reports of P300 in the past, its abnormalities reflect the deficit of attention in Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hideaki Matsui
- Department of Neurology, Sumitomo Hospital, 5-3-20 Nakanoshima, Osaka, Japan.
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11
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Robichaud JA, Pfann KD, Vaillancourt DE, Comella CL, Corcos DM. Force control and disease severity in Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 2005; 20:441-450. [PMID: 15593316 DOI: 10.1002/mds.20350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Several measures of isometric contractions reflect motor impairments in subjects with Parkinson's disease (PD), including long relaxation times and greater power in the 5 to 15 Hz electromyographic (EMG) bandwidth during the holding phase of contractions compared to those measures in healthy subjects. We sought to determine whether the impairments observed in subjects with PD in the performance of isometric contractions reflect disease severity. Twenty-eight subjects with PD performed isometric contractions at a torque level equal to 50% of the torque generated during a maximum voluntary contraction while off medication. Subjects were instructed to reach the target torque as fast as possible upon hearing the auditory "go" signal and to relax their muscles when a second auditory cue signaled the end of the hold phase. There was a significant positive correlation between torque relaxation time and Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS)-Motor score. A significant positive correlation was also observed between the proportion of power in the 5 to 15 Hz frequency bin of the agonist EMG signal and UPDRS-Motor score, and a significant negative correlation between the proportion of power in the 15 to 30 Hz frequency bin and UPDRS-Motor score. These measures provide objective quantification of the severity of motor impairment that can be used to investigate the efficacy of different interventions in individuals with PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie A Robichaud
- Department of Physical Therapy, School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Indiana University, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - Kerstin D Pfann
- Department of Movement Sciences (M/C 994), University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - David E Vaillancourt
- Department of Movement Sciences (M/C 994), University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Cynthia L Comella
- Department of Neurological Sciences, Rush Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Daniel M Corcos
- Department of Movement Sciences (M/C 994), University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
- Department of Neurological Sciences, Rush Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, USA
- Department of Physical Therapy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
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12
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KATSARO Z. AUDITORY EVENT-RELATED POTENTIALS IN PARKINSON'S DISEASE IN RELATION TO COGNITIVE ABILITY. Percept Mot Skills 2004. [DOI: 10.2466/pms.98.3.1441-1448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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13
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Hayashi R, Hanyu N, Tamaru F. Cognitive impairment in Parkinson's disease: a 6year follow-up study. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 1998; 4:81-5. [DOI: 10.1016/s1353-8020(98)00018-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/1998] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Sagliocco L, Bandini F, Pierantozzi M, Mari Z, Tzelepi A, Ko C, Gulzar J, Bodis-Wollner I. Electrophysiological evidence for visuocognitive dysfunction in younger non Caucasian patients with Parkinson's disease. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 1997; 104:427-39. [PMID: 9295175 DOI: 10.1007/bf01277661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
A study of "primary" (VEPs) and "cognitive" (ERPs) visual evoked potentials was carried out in a group of non-demented Afro-American Parkinson's disease (PD) patients. Current studies suggest that differences exist in the clinical manifestations of PD in Caucasian and non-Caucasian populations. Two horizontal sinusoidal gratings differing in spatial frequency, i.e., 1 and 4 cycles per degree (cpd), were presented in an "odd-ball" paradigm to 17 patients with PD and 17 age-matched control subjects. While the 1 cpd stimulus, is not expected to reveal retinal dopaminergic deficency, but only visuocognitive deficits, the 4cpd may give direct information of both "retinal" and "cognitive" visual deficits. We measured the latencies and amplitudes of N70, P100 and P300 components, and derived the "normalized" measures of P300-N70 latency difference (Central Processing Time-CPT70), the P300-P100 latency difference (CPT100) and the P300 amplitude responses normalized to either N70 and P100 amplitude (Amplitude Ratios AR70 and AR100). Our results do show that cognitive electrophysiological deficits in younger PD patients exist in non-Caucasians, perhaps to an even greater degree than in Caucasians, and confirm that absolute and normalized ERP amplitude and latency abnormalities are a distinguishing feature of younger PD patients from controls. In particular P300 measures are abnormal for 1 cpd pattern. A negative correlation exists between P300 amplitude and the motor score. By comparing the results for 1 and 4cpd stimuli it can be concluded that "primary" and "cognitive" visual abnormalities are independently affected in PD, implying that visuo-cognitive abnormalities are not passively determined by retinal dopaminergic deficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Sagliocco
- Department of Neurosciences, University of Pisa, Italy
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Bodis-Wollner I. Visual electrophysiology in Parkinson's disease: PERG, VEP and visual P300. CLINICAL EEG (ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY) 1997; 28:143-7. [PMID: 9241467 DOI: 10.1177/155005949702800305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
A retinal dopaminergic deficiency underlies some visual changes in Parkinson's disease (PD), in particular those elicited by stimuli near the peak of the human and monkey spatial contrast sensitivity. The correspondence of retinal changes and VEP alterations is not perfect: they do not seem to rely on identical mechanisms. It seems that additional pathology beyond the retina affects visual responses, including VEPs. The relevance of "distal" primary VEP changes to higher cognitive visual abnormalities in PD is not established at present.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Bodis-Wollner
- Department of Neurology, State University, SUNY-HSCB, Brooklyn 11203, USA
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