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Effects of verbal instructions and physical threat removal prior to extinction training on the return of conditioned fear. Sci Rep 2020; 10:1202. [PMID: 31988311 PMCID: PMC6985120 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-57934-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2019] [Accepted: 01/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Instructions given prior to extinction training facilitate the extinction of conditioned skin conductance (SCRs) and fear-potentiated startle responses (FPSs) and serve as laboratory models for cognitive interventions implemented in exposure-based treatments of pathological anxiety. Here, we investigated how instructions given prior to extinction training, with or without the additional removal of the electrode used to deliver the unconditioned stimulus (US), affect the return of fear assessed 24 hours later. We replicated previous instruction effects on extinction and added that the additional removal of the US electrode slightly enhanced facilitating effects on the extinction of conditioned FPSs. In contrast, extinction instructions hardly affected the return of conditioned fear responses. These findings suggest that instruction effects observed during extinction training do not extent to tests of return of fear 24 hours later which serve as laboratory models of relapse and improvement stability of exposure-based treatments.
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Abstract
AbstractA number of ways of taxonomizing human learning have been proposed. We examine the evidence for one such proposal, namely, that there exist independent explicit and implicit learning systems. This combines two further distinctions, (1) between learning that takes place with versus without concurrent awareness, and (2) between learning that involves the encoding of instances (or fragments) versus the induction of abstract rules or hypotheses. Implicit learning is assumed to involve unconscious rule learning. We examine the evidence for implicit learning derived from subliminal learning, conditioning, artificial grammar learning, instrumental learning, and reaction times in sequence learning. We conclude that unconscious learning has not been satisfactorily established in any of these areas. The assumption that learning in some of these tasks (e.g., artificial grammar learning) is predominantly based on rule abstraction is questionable. When subjects cannot report the “implicitly learned” rules that govern stimulus selection, this is often because their knowledge consists of instances or fragments of the training stimuli rather than rules. In contrast to the distinction between conscious and unconscious learning, the distinction between instance and rule learning is a sound and meaningful way of taxonomizing human learning. We discuss various computational models of these two forms of learning.
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Armel KC, Pulido C, Wixted JT, Chiba AA. The smart gut: Tracking affective associative learning with measures of “liking”, facial electromyography, and preferential looking. LEARNING AND MOTIVATION 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lmot.2008.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Corneille O, Yzerbyt V, Pleyers G, Mussweiler T. Beyond awareness and resources: Evaluative conditioning may be sensitive to processing goals. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2008.08.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Maturski EJ, Bond NW, Siddle DAT, Lovibond PF. Classical conditioning of autonomic and affective responses to fear-relevant and fear-irrelevant stimuli. AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2007. [DOI: 10.1080/00049539308259121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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The role of awareness in Pavlovian conditioning: Empirical evidence and theoretical implications. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2002. [DOI: 10.1037/0097-7403.28.1.3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 310] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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De Houwer J. Contingency awareness and evaluative conditioning: when will it be enough? Conscious Cogn 2001; 10:550-8; discussion 567-73. [PMID: 11790042 DOI: 10.1006/ccog.2001.0528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J De Houwer
- University of Southampton, Highfield, Southampton, United Kingdom.
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De Houwer J, Thomas S, Baeyens F. Associative learning of likes and dislikes: a review of 25 years of research on human evaluative conditioning. Psychol Bull 2001; 127:853-69. [PMID: 11726074 DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.127.6.853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 571] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Evaluative conditioning refers to changes in the liking of a stimulus that are due to the fact that the stimulus has been paired with other, positive or negative stimuli. Although evaluative conditioning appears to be subjected to certain boundary conditions, significant evaluative conditioning effects have been obtained using a large variety of stimuli and procedures. Some data suggest that evaluative conditioning can occur under conditions that do not support other forms of Pavlovian conditioning, and several models have been proposed to account for these differences. In the present article, the authors summarize the available literature, draw conclusions where possible, and provide suggestions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- J De Houwer
- Department of Psychology, University of Southampton, England.
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Field AP. I like it, but I'm not sure why: can evaluative conditioning occur without conscious awareness? Conscious Cogn 2000; 9:13-36. [PMID: 10753490 DOI: 10.1006/ccog.1999.0402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
There is good evidence that, in general, autonomic conditioning in humans occurs only when subjects can verbalize the contingencies of conditioning. However, one form of conditioning, evaluative conditioning (EC), seems exceptional in that a growing body of evidence suggests that it can occur without conscious contingency awareness. As such, EC offers a unique insight into what role contingency awareness might play in associative learning. Despite this evidence, there are reasons to doubt that evaluative conditioning can occur without conscious awareness. This paper aims to critically review the EC literature and to draw some parallels to what is known about autonomic conditioning. In doing so, some important general issues about measuring contingency awareness are raised. These issues are illustrated with a brief report of an experiment in which a sensitive measure of contingency awareness is compared against a commonly used measure.
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Affiliation(s)
- A P Field
- Psychology Department, University of London, Egham, Surrey, TW20 0EX, United Kingdom.
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van Reekum CM, vann de Berg H, Frijda NH. Cross-modal Preference Acquisition: Evaluative Conditioning of Pictures by Affective Olfactory and Auditory Cues. Cogn Emot 1999. [DOI: 10.1080/026999399379104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
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Evaluative Conditioning Is a Form of Associative Learning: On the Artifactual Nature of Field and Davey's (1997) Artifactual Account of Evaluative Learning. LEARNING AND MOTIVATION 1998. [DOI: 10.1006/lmot.1998.1007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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de Houwer J, Hendrickx H, Baeyens F. Evaluative learning with "subliminally" presented stimuli. Conscious Cogn 1997; 6:87-107. [PMID: 9170563 DOI: 10.1006/ccog.1996.0281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Evaluative learning refers to the change in the affective evaluation of a previously neutral stimulus (NS) that occurs after the stimulus has been associated with a second, positive or negative, affective stimulus (AS). Four experiments are reported in which the AS was presented very briefly. Significant evaluative learning was observed in participants who did not notice the presentation of the affective stimuli (ASi) (Experiment 2) or could not discriminate between the briefly presented positive and negative ASi when asked to do so (Experiment 3). In two other experiments (Experiments 1 and 4), no significant learning effect was obtained. A meta-analysis performed on the present and previously reported results (De Houwer, Baeyens, & Eelen, 1994) gave evidence for a small, though statistically reliable evaluative learning effect when ASi are presented "subliminally." This finding supports the hypothesis that evaluative associations can be learned implicitly.
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Toilet rooms, body massages, and smells: Two field studies on human evaluative odor conditioning. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 1996. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02686936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Baeyens F, De Houwer J. Evaluative conditioning is a qualitatively distinct form of classical conditioning: a reply to Davey (1994). Behav Res Ther 1995; 33:825-31. [PMID: 7677721 DOI: 10.1016/0005-7967(95)00021-o] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Based on a critical review of the literature, Davey (1994) [Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32, 291-299] concludes that there is no sufficient evidence to support the theoretical position that evaluative conditioning is a qualitatively different form of classical conditioning. In the present manuscript, we will try to show that Davey's conclusion is biased by: (a) an overemphasis on what he believes to be problematic procedural aspects of previous evaluative conditioning studies; and (b) a selective reading of the available evidence. Finally, an attempt is made to characterize evaluative conditioning phenomena as the output of a Referential Learning System, which can be distinguished from an Expectancy Learning System.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Baeyens
- Department of Psychology, University of Leuven, Belgium
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Todrank J, Byrnes D, Wrzesniewski A, Rozin P. Odors can change preferences for people in photographs: A cross-modal evaluative conditioning study with olfactory USs and visual CSs. LEARNING AND MOTIVATION 1995. [DOI: 10.1016/0023-9690(95)90001-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Dissociating multiple memory systems: Don't forsake the brain. Behav Brain Sci 1994. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x00035251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Abstract
Classical conditioning is involved in the acquisition of chronic pain. The present study investigated whether experimental pain responses can be conditioned using auditory stimuli in a differential trace conditioning paradigm. 16 healthy subjects served as paid volunteers. The UCS was an intracutaneous electrical stimulus applied to the left middle-finger (10 ms duration). Tones of 1000 and 1400 Hz (both 80 dB SPL, 50 ms) were used as CS+ and CS-, respectively. A trace conditioning paradigm was used with an 800 ms interval between CS and UCS. Somatosensory event related potentials (SEP) and auditory event related potentials (AEP) were recorded from 29 electrode sites. Subjective pain reports were measured with an adjective list that allowed a detailed description of subjects' sensations elicited by painful and auditory stimuli. Data revealed significant differences of the subjective sensations between the CS+ and CS-, but no differences in the amplitudes and latencies of the P50, N100, P200, and P300 AEP components. No changes in the topographical organization of the CS+ and CS- were found. A significant differential negativity in the brain sites responsible for processing the UCS was obtained, which is attributed to the anticipation of the UCS after CS+ presentation.
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Is implicit learning about consciousness? Behav Brain Sci 1994. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x00035093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Implicit practical learning. Behav Brain Sci 1994. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x00035135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Learning without awareness: What counts as an appropriate test of learning and of awareness. Behav Brain Sci 1994. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x00035287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Is learning during anaesthesia implicit? Behav Brain Sci 1994. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x00035044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Can procedural learning be equated with unconscious learning or rule-based learning? Behav Brain Sci 1994. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x00035184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Human autonomic conditioning without awareness. Behav Brain Sci 1994. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x00035172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Is awareness necessary for operant conditioning? Behav Brain Sci 1994. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x00035354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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How should implicit learning be characterized? Behav Brain Sci 1994. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x0003538x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Development, learning, and consciousness. Behav Brain Sci 1994. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x00035160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Faulty rationale for the two factors that dissociate learning systems. Behav Brain Sci 1994. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x00035238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Implementational constraints on human learning and memory systems. Behav Brain Sci 1994. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x00035214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Learning strategies and situated knowledge. Behav Brain Sci 1994. [DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x00035317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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