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Wu SW, Su CH, Ho YC, Huang-Liu R, Tseng CC, Chiang YW, Yeh KL, Lee SS, Chen WY, Chen CJ, Li YC, Lee CY, Kuan YH. Genotoxic effects of 1-nitropyrene in macrophages are mediated through a p53-dependent pathway involving cytochrome c release, caspase activation, and PARP-1 cleavage. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2021; 213:112062. [PMID: 33618169 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.112062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2020] [Revised: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Genotoxic stress from environmental pollutants plays a critical role in cytotoxicity. The most abundant nitro-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon in environmental pollutants, 1-nitropyrene (1-NP), is generated during fossil fuel, diesel, and biomass combustion under sunlight. Macrophages, the key regulators of the innate immune system, provide the first line of defense against pathogens. The toxic effects of 1-NP on macrophages remain unclear. Through a lactate dehydrogenase assay, we measured the cytotoxicity induced by 1-NP. Our results revealed that 1-NP induced genotoxicity also named DNA damage, including micronucleus formation and DNA strand breaks, in a concentration-dependent manner. Furthermore, 1-NP induced p53 phosphorylation and nuclear accumulation; mitochondrial cytochrome c release; caspase-3 and -9 activation and cleavage; and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) cleavage in a concentration-dependent manner. Pretreatment with the PARP inhibitor, 3-aminobenzamide, significantly reduced cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, and PARP-1 cleavage induced by 1-NP. Pretreatment with the caspase-3 inhibitor, z-DEVD-fmk, significantly reduced cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, PARP-1 cleavage, and caspase 3 activation induced by 1-NP. Pretreatment with the p53 inhibitor, pifithrin-α, significantly reduced cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, PARP-1 cleavage, caspase 3 activation, and p53 phosphorylation induced by 1-NP. We propose that cytotoxicity and genotoxicity induced by 1-NP by PARP-1 cleavage via caspase-3 and -9 activation through cytochrome c release from mitochondria and its upstream p53-dependent pathway in macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng-Wen Wu
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, Chung Shan Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan; The School of Medicine, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Chun-Hung Su
- Department of Internal Medicine, Chung Shan Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan; Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Yung-Chuan Ho
- School of Medical Applied Chemistry, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Rosa Huang-Liu
- School of Nutrition, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Ching-Chi Tseng
- Aerospace Center Hospital, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Yun-Wei Chiang
- Department of life sciences, National Chung-Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Kun-Lin Yeh
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Shiuan-Shinn Lee
- School of Public Health, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Ying Chen
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Chun-Jung Chen
- Department of Education and Research, Taichung Veterans General Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Ching Li
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan; Department of Pharmacy, Chung Shan Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Ying Lee
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan; Department of Pharmacy, Chung Shan Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Hsiang Kuan
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan; Department of Pharmacy, Chung Shan Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan.
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Kitchin RM, Bechtold WE, Brooks AL. The structure-function relationships of nitrofluorenes and nitrofluorenones in the Salmonella mutagenicity and CHO sister-chromatid exchange assays. Mutat Res 1988; 206:367-77. [PMID: 3059181 DOI: 10.1016/0165-1218(88)90123-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Nitrofluorenes and nitrofluorenones are bacterial mutagens and are detected in a variety of environmental pollution sources. We tested a series of nitrosubstituted fluorenes and fluorenones for their genotoxicity using both Salmonella bacteria and Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells to determine if structure-function relationships observed in bacteria for mutation induction are similar to those for mutations and SCE induction in mammalian (CHO) cells. The compounds studied were 2-nitrofluorene (2-NF), 2,7-dinitrofluorene (2,7-DNF), 3-nitrofluorenone (3-NFone), 2-nitrofluorenone (2-NFone), 2,7-dinitrofluorenone (2,7-DNFone), 2,4,7-trinitrofluorenone (2,4,7-TNFone), and 2,4,5,7-tetranitrofluorenone (2,4,5,7-TNFone). In bacteria, the presence of carbonyl group to convert mono-nitrofluorenes to nitrofluorenones and the addition of a second nitro group to either mono-nitrofluorene or fluorenone to form the dinitro compounds increased mutagenic activity in the Ames test. Location of the nitro group relative to the carbonyl group was important in enhancing mutagenic activity as 2-nitrofluorenone was more mutagenic than 3-nitrofluorenone. In CHO cells, the di-, tri- and tetra-nitrofluorenones were cytotoxic and delayed the progression of CHO cells through the cell cycle. The degree of the cytotoxicity could be decreased by the addition of S9. None of the compounds produced mutations when tested in the CHO/HGPRT mutation assay with the addition of S9. Nonetheless, the current study did show that these compounds, both with and without the activation by S9, can interact with the DNA and produce SCE in CHO cells. The addition of a carbonyl group had no influence on SCE frequency since both 2-nitrofluorene and 2-nitrofluorenone induced a similar frequency of SCE either with or without S9. Additional nitro groups, forming di-, tri- or tetra-nitrofluorenones, increased the frequency of SCE induced, especially when tested with S9 which limits cytotoxicity. The addition of a single nitro group to 2-nitrofluorenone did not change the SCE frequency but did cause a large increase in the frequency of mutations in bacteria. In contrast, 2,4,7-TNFone and 2,4,5,7-TNFone were less mutagenic than the 2,7-DNFone in bacteria but were more effective in production of SCE in CHO cells. This study illustrates that structure-function relationships are dependent on both the compounds tested and the type of genetic change induced.
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Affiliation(s)
- R M Kitchin
- Department of Zoology and Physiology, University of Wyoming, Laramie 82071
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