Vagal influences on respiratory mechanics, pressures, and control in rats

Modeling the dynamics of airway constriction: effects of agonist transport and binding

Recent advances have revealed that during exogenous airway challenge, airway diameters cannot be adequately predicted by their initial diameters. Furthermore, airway diameters can also vary greatly in time on scales shorter than a breath. To better understand these phenomena, we developed a multiscale model that allowed us to simulate aerosol challenge in the airways during ventilation. The model incorporates agonist-receptor binding kinetics to govern the temporal response of airway smooth muscle contraction on individual airway segments, which, together with airway wall mechanics, determines local airway caliber. Global agonist transport and deposition are coupled with pressure-driven flow, linking local airway constrictions with global flow dynamics. During the course of challenge, airway constriction alters the flow pattern, redistributing the agonist to less constricted regions. This results in a negative feedback that may be a protective property of the normal lung. As a consequence, repetitive challenge can cause spatial constriction patterns to evolve in time, resulting in a loss of predictability of airway diameters. Additionally, the model offers new insights into several phenomena including the intra- and interbreath dynamics of airway constriction throughout the tree structure.

Effects of dexmedetomidine on respiratory mechanics and control of breathing in normal rats

Dexmedetomidine is a highly selective and specific alpha(2)-adrenergic agonist, with sedative, analgesic, and sympatholytic activities. The aim of the present study was to define the effects of DMED in respiratory mechanics in normal rats. In addition, lung morphometry was studied to determine whether the physiological changes reflected underlying morphological changes defining the sites of action of dexmedetomidine. Arterial blood gases were also determined. Twelve adult Wistar rats were randomly assigned to two groups of six animals each: PENTO and DMED. In PENTO group animals were sedated (diazepam, 5mg, i.p.) and anaesthetised with pentobarbital sodium (20mgkg(-1) i.p.). The rats of the DMED group received dexmedetomidine (250mugkg(-1) i.p. followed by intravenous infusion of 0.5mugkg(-1)h(-1)). In spontaneously breathing rats, minute ventilation, respiratory frequency, and neuromuscular inspiratory drive were lower in dexmedetomidine group, which also presented hypercapnia, whereas tidal volume, inspiratory, expiratory, and total respiratory cycle times were higher in dexmedetomidine group compared to the PENTO group. During mechanical ventilation, respiratory mechanical parameters were similar in both groups. These findings were supported by the absence of histological changes. In conclusion, under the conditions studied, dexmedetomidine did not change respiratory mechanical parameters and lung histology, but induced ventilatory depression.

Effects of undernutrition on respiratory mechanics and lung parenchyma remodeling

Undernutrition thwarts lung structure and function, but there are disagreements about the behavior of lung mechanics in malnourished animals. To clarify this issue, lung and chest wall mechanical properties were subdivided into their resistive, elastic, and viscoelastic properties in nutritionally deprived (ND) rats and correlated with the data gathered from histology (light and electron microscopy and elastic fiber content), and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid analysis (lipid and protein content). Twenty-four Wistar rats were assigned into two groups. In the control (Ctrl) group the animals received food ad libitum. In the ND group, rats received one-third of their usual daily food consumption until they lost 40% of their initial body weight. Lung static elastance, viscoelastic and resistive pressures (normalized by functional residual capacity), and chest wall pressures were higher in the ND group than in the Ctrl group. The ND group exhibited patchy atelectasis, areas of emphysema, interstitial edema, and reduced elastic fiber content. The amount of lipid and protein in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid was significantly reduced in the ND group. Electron microscopy showed 1) type II pneumocytes with a reduction in lamellar body content, multilamellated structures, membrane vesicles, granular debris, and structurally aberrant mitochondria; and 2) diaphragm and intercostals with atrophy, disarrangement of the myofibrils, and deposition of collagen type I fibers. In conclusion, undernutrition led to lung and chest wall mechanical changes that were the result from a balance among the following modifications: 1) distorted structure of diaphragm and intercostals, 2) surfactant content reduction, and 3) decrease in elastic fiber content.

Modeling of the expiratory flow pattern of spontaneously breathing cats

A mathematical model was developed describing the entire expiratory flow pattern during spontaneous, tidal breathing in the absence of expiratory muscle activity. It provides estimates for the time constants of the respiratory system (tau RS(model)) and of the decay of continuing inspiratory muscle activity in early expiration (tau mus(model)). In ten anesthetized, tracheostomized cats flow, tracheal pressure and diaphragmatic EMG were measured during normal expirations and expirations with four different added resistances. No significant differences were found between tau RS(model) (0.21-0.49 sec) obtained by fitting the model to the flow data and tau RS obtained from the straight part of the expiratory flow-volume curve. tau mus(model) (0.050-0.052 sec) was comparable to similar time constants obtained from the integrated diaphragmatic EMG or from end-inspiratory, tracheal occlusion pressure. Fitted peak flow and time to peak tidal expiratory flow were not significantly different from those measured. In conclusion, for spontaneously breathing, anesthetized cats our model provides a close fit of the expiratory flow and parameter estimates were comparable with independently measured values.

Lung mechanics and end-expiratory lung volume during hypoxia in rats

We investigated whether an hypoxia-induced increase in airway resistance mediated by vagal efferents participates in the increase in end-expiratory lung volume (EELV) observed in hypoxia. We also assessed the contribution of the end-expiratory activity of the diaphragm (DE) to this phenomenon. Therefore, we measured EELV, total lung resistance (RL), dynamic lung compliance (Cdyn), DE, and minute ventilation (VE) in anesthetized rats during normoxia and hypoxia (10% O(2)) before (control) and after administration of atropine or saline. In the control group, hypoxia increased EELV, Cdyn, DE, and VE but slightly decreased RL. These changes were unaffected by saline or atropine, except that, in the atropine-treated rats, hypoxia did not change RL. These results suggest that 1) the increase in EELV observed in hypoxia cannot result from an increase in airway resistance; 2) the increased and persistent activity of inspiratory muscles during expiration is the most likely cause of the increase in EELV during hypoxia; and 3) the decrease in RL induced by hypoxia could result from the increase in lung volume including EELV.

Effects of uni- and bilateral phrenicotomy on active and passive respiratory mechanics in rats

Eighteen spontaneously breathing anesthetized rats were selected to belong to three groups: control (C), unilateral (U), and bilateral phrenicotomy (B). Eight days after surgery, the passive and active mechanical properties of the respiratory system, the shape of the occlusion pressure wave, the decay of inspiratory muscle activity during expiration and control of breathing were analysed. Passive and active elastances increased significantly from C to U and from U to B. Passive and active time constants decreased either in uni- or bilateral phrenicotomies. Passive and active resistances remained unaltered. The intensity of respiratory drive increased from C to U and B. In conclusion, uni- and bilateral phrenicotomies increase the elastic load of the respiratory system, because of both its passive and active components, which raised the respiratory neuromuscular drive of the remaining muscles. Consequently, minute ventilation remained unchanged. The higher frequency was allowed for, by a shorter time constant of the respiratory system and by a faster decay of post-inspiratory muscle activity.

Effect of salicylate on respiratory mechanics and postinspiratory muscle pressure

In 5 spontaneously breathing anesthetized dogs, sodium salicylate (250 mg/kg) was administered. Air flow, volume, and tracheal pressure were measured. The passive mechanical properties of the respiratory system, control of breathing parameters, and the postinspiratory pressure generated by the inspiratory muscles (PmusI) were computed both before and during progressive salicylate-induced hyperventilation. Resistance fell, whereas elastance and time constant were not altered with increased ventilation (VE). The relationship between PmusI and expiratory duration (TE) presented a sigmoidal decay rate, which did not vary with hyperventilation. PmusI at TE = 0 (PmusI, 0); the times for PmusI to decay to 50 (T50), 25 (T25), and 0 percent (TZ) of PmusI, 0; inspiratory (TI), expiratory (TE) and total cycle duration (TT) decreased with increasing VE. As expiration shortened more than inspiration and TI fell more than VT rose, TI/TT and VT/TI increased during hyperventilation. In conclusion, in the face of salicylic intoxication: Rrs diminished, TI and TE decreased markedly, yielding higher values of TI/TT and VT/TI, and although T50, T25, and TZ fell, the relative time profile of PmusI remained unaltered.

Evoked bronchoconstriction: testing three methods for measuring respiratory mechanics

In order to assess the usefulness of methods for noninvasive study of respiratory mechanics in intubated patients better, we studied 16 anesthetized paralyzed mechanically ventilated guinea pigs previously sensitized with ovalbumin. Respiratory system elastance and resistance were determined in control and acute antigen exposed (AAE) animals by the end-inflation occlusion method (EIOM), the single-breath method (SBM), and the interrupter technique (IT). In control group, total respiratory system resistance and elastance were constant over tidal volume range and the three methods provided similar results. In AAE group elastance was also constant throughout tidal volume and measured by SBM and IT was, respectively, 93.4 and 57.9% higher than in control group. The relationships between resistive pressure and expiratory flow became curvilinear with an upward convexity. IT underestimated both elastance and resistance measurements in AAE group. Using EIOM the determination of the homogeneous and uneven components of respiratory resistance was possible in control animals, whereas in AAE group resistance was entirely represented by its uneven component.