Phosphotyrosyl phosphatase activity of the polycation-stimulated protein phosphatases and involvement of dephosphorylation in cell cycle regulation

The role of serine/threonine protein phosphatases in exocytosis

Modulation of exocytosis is integral to the regulation of cellular signalling, and a variety of disorders (such as epilepsy, hypertension, diabetes and asthma) are closely associated with pathological modulation of exocytosis. Emerging evidence points to protein phosphatases as key regulators of exocytosis in many cells and, therefore, as potential targets for the design of novel therapies to treat these diseases. Diverse yet exquisite regulatory mechanisms have evolved to direct the specificity of these enzymes in controlling particular cell processes, and functionally driven studies have demonstrated differential regulation of exocytosis by individual protein phosphatases. This Review discusses the evidence for the regulation of exocytosis by protein phosphatases in three major secretory systems, (1) mast cells, in which the regulation of exocytosis of inflammatory mediators plays a major role in the respiratory response to antigens, (2) insulin-secreting cells in which regulation of exocytosis is essential for metabolic control, and (3) neurons, in which regulation of exocytosis is perhaps the most complex and is essential for effective neurotransmission.

Estimation of the rate constants associated with the inhibitory effect of okadaic acid on type 2A protein phosphatase by time-course analysis

As is often the case with tightly binding inhibitors, okadaic acid produces its inhibitory effect on type 2A protein phosphatase (PP2A) in a time-dependent manner. We measured the rate constants associated with the binding of okadaic acid to PP2A by analysing the time-course of the reduction of the p-nitrophenyl phosphate (pNPP) phosphatase activity of the enzyme after application of okadaic acid. The rate constants for dissociation of okadaic acid from PP2A were also estimated from the time-course of the recovery of the activity from inhibition by okadaic acid after addition of a mouse IgG1 monoclonal antibody raised against the inhibitor. Our results show that the rate constants for the binding of okadaic acid and PP2A are of the order of 10(7) M-1.s-1, a typical value for reactions involving relatively large molecules, whereas those for their dissociation are in the range 10(-4)-10(-3) s-1. The very low values of the latter seems to be the determining factor for the exceedingly high affinity of okadaic acid for PP2A. The dissociation constants for the interaction of okadaic acid with the free enzyme and the enzyme-substrate complex, estimated as the ratio of the rate constants, are both in the range 30-40 pM, in agreement with the results of previous dose-inhibition analyses.

Inhibitory effect of okadaic acid derivatives on protein phosphatases. A study on structure-affinity relationship

The effect of structural modifications of okadaic acid (OA), a polyether C38 fatty acid, was studied on its inhibitory activity toward type 1 and type 2A protein phosphatases (PP1 and PP2A) by using OA derivatives obtained either by isolation from natural sources or by chemical processes. The dissociation constant (Ki) for the interaction of OA with PP2A was estimated to be 30 (26-33) nM [median (95% confidence limits)]. The OA derivatives used and their affinity for PP2A, expressed as Ki (in brackets) were as follows: 35-methyl-OA (DTX1) [19 (12-25) pM], OA-9,10-episulphide (acanthifolicin) [47 (25-60) pM], 7-deoxy-OA [69 (31-138) pM], 14,15-dihydro-OA [315 (275-360) pM], 2-deoxy-OA [899 (763-1044) pM], 7-O-palmitoyl-OA [greater than 100 nM], 7-O-palmitoyl-DTX1 [greater than 100 nM], methyl okadate [much greater than 100 nM], 2-oxo-decarboxy-OA [much greater than 100 nM] and the C-15-C-38 fragment of OA [much greater than 100 nM]. The sequence of the affinity of these derivatives for PP1 was essentially the same as that observed with PP2A, although the absolute values of Ki were very different for the enzymes. The inhibitory effect of OA on PP2A was reversed by applying a murine monoclonal antibody against OA, which recognizes modifications of the 7-hydroxyl group of the OA molecule. It has been shown by n.m.r. spectroscopy and X-ray analysis that one end (C-1-C-24) of the OA molecule assumes a circular conformation. The present results suggest the importance of the conformation for the inhibitory action of OA on the protein phosphatases. The ratios of the Ki values for PP1 to that for PP2A, which were within the range 10(3)-10(4), tended to be smaller for the derivatives with lower affinity, indicating that the structural changes in OA impaired the affinity for PP2A more strongly than that for PP1.